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honour any person at table, the master sends him a larger portion, as Joseph did Benjamin, Gen. xliii. 34.

*

In general they sup about five o'clock in winter, and six in summer: as their supper much resembles their dinner, it is unnecessary to describe it.

5. Their mode of eating must not be overlooked. The thick meats they take up with the thumb and the two forefingers, and their milk and pottage is eaten by dippino bread into it. When they drink water at table, it is usually out of shells, horns, or cups; but if from a river, they take it from the palm of the hands; or if from a pitcher, or ground, they suck it through their sleeve, for fear of leeches. Wines were formerly very common among the Jews, which were kept in leathern bottles (Matt. ix. 17), and cooled by the snow of Lebanon.

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6. Sitting at meals, till near the end of the times of the Old Testament, appears to have been universal, Gen. xliii. 33; Ex. xxxii. 6; 1 Sam. xx. 5; Prov. xxiii. 1; Ezek. xliv. 3, &c. We have the first indications of the change of posture, from sitting to lying, in Amos vi. 4, and Judith xii. 15, Greek. In our Saviour's days the reclining posture at meals had become universal. Every time, therefore, that sitting at meat is mentioned in the New Testament, it ought to have been rendered lying," to make it accord with the universal practice.† For want of proper discrimination and description, with regard to this attitude at table, several passages of the Gospels are not merely injured, but are rendered unintelligible in our translation. Thus, "A woman in the city who was a sinner, when she knew that Jesus SAT at meat in the Pharisee's house, brought an alabaster-box of ointment, and stood at his feet BEHIND HIM, Weeping: and began to wash his feet with tears, and did wipe them with the hairs of her head; and kissed his feet, and anointed them with the ointment," Lu. vii. 36. Now, according to our notions, a person sitting at meat, would, of necessity, have his feet on the floor under the table, and consequently BEFORE him, not behind him and the impossibility of one standing at his feet behind him-standing, and while standing, kissing his feet, wiping them, &c. is glaring. By inspecting the accompanying print, however, the narration becomes intelligible: the feet of the person recumbent, being outermost, are most exposed to salutation, or to any other treatment, from one standing behind him. The same observations apply to John xii. 3: "Lazarus was one who reclined at table with Jesus; and Mary anointed the feet

*Russel, vol. i. p. 166.

+ Campbell on the Gospels, Dissert. viii. p. 3.

of Jesus," &c. * It is only necessary to add, that at these times the people commonly throw off their sandals, and are therefore barefoot.

7. In former times, portions were sent to those who were absent (Neh. viii. 10, 12; Esth. ix. 22); and it should ever be recollected, that the men and the women in higher life had separate tables (Esth. i. 9), as is the case in the East at the present day. The custom of the Arabs, also, who never preserve fragments of their meals, but invite the poor to partake of them, may explain the reason why Tobit sent for the poor to partake of his dinner (ch. ii. 2); and why the poor, the maimed, and the blind, were invited to the rich man's supper, in Lu. xiv. 21.

8. From the Mishna it appears that the Jews had forms of thanksgiving, not only at the eating of the passover, but before and after meals, and even on the introduction of many of the dishes. And Aristæus, as quoted by Rabbi Eleazar, says, "Moses commanded that when the Jews began their meals, the company should immediately join in sacrifice, or prayer." The duty of Christians on this subject is enforced, not only by the reason of the thing, and the practice of the Greeks, Romans, and Jews, but by the example of our Saviour in Mark viii. 6; John vi. 11, 23, and of Paul in Acts xxvii. 35. In the end of the fifth book of the Apostolical Constitutions, is a form of grace or prayer for Christians, which seems to have been intended for both before and after meat. ‡

SECTION X.

FORMS OF POLITENESS, AND MARKS OF HONOUR AND DISGRACE.

-

I. FORMS OF POLITENESS. 1. Salutations-2. Prostration3. Presents made to superiors-4. Manner of conducting visits. II. MARKS OF HONOUR.- Presentation of raiment. III. MARKS OF DISGRACE.-1. Cutting the beard-2. Clapping the hands and hissing-3. Refusing the rites of sepulture4. Disinterment of the dead, &c.

I. Various are the modes of address and politeness which custom has established in different nations. In the East they

* Fragments to Calmet, No. 104; and Critica Biblica, vol. ii. pp. 481-487. + Murray's Account of Discov. and Trav. in Asia, b. ii. c. 8; Burckhardt's Travels in Syria, &c. pp. 484-488.

Brown's Jewish Antiq. part ix. sect.5.

were very
ceremonious and exact in their outward decorum ;
and in their mutual behaviour scrupulously observed all the
rules and forms in which civility was usually expressed.

1. We collect from several passages in the Old Testament, that
their salutations and expressions of affection on meeting each
other were extremely tedious and tiresome, containing many
particular enquiries after the person's welfare, and the welfare
of his family and friends; and when they parted, concluding
with many reciprocal wishes of happiness and benediction on
each other. Much time was spent in the rigid observance of
these ceremonious forms: when our Lord, therefore, in his
commission to the Seventy, whom he dispatched into the towns
and villages of Judea to publish the Gospel, strictly ordered
them to salute no man by the way" (Lu. x. 4), he designed
only by this prohibition that they should suffer nothing to
retard and impede them in their progress from one place to
another, and should not lavish those precious moments, which
ought to be devoted to the sacred and arduous duties of their
office, in observing the irksome and unmeaning modes of
life. Not that our Lord intended his disciples should studi-
ously violate all common civility and decency, and industri-
ously offend against the rules of courteousness and decorum;
since he commanded them upon their entrance into any house to
salute it (Matt. x. 12.), and observe the customary form of
civility in wishing it peace, or universal happiness, Lu. x. 5.
This injunction to salute no one on the road, means only that
they should urge their course with speed, and advert to
nothing so much as the duties of their commission. There is
a parallel passage in the Old Testament, and which beautifully
illustrates this. Elisha dispatching his servant Gehazi to re-
cover the son of the Shunamite, strictly enjoins him to make
all the expedition possible-"Gird up thy loins, and take
my staff in thine hand, and go thy way. If thou meet any
man salute him not, and if any salute thee, answer him not
again," 2 Ki. iv. 29.*

Though the terms of these modes of address and politeness are expressive of the profoundest respect and homage, yet through constant use and frequency of repetition they soon degenerate into mere verbal forms and words of course, in which the heart has no share. To those empty, insignificant forms which men mechanically repeat at meeting or taking leave of each other, there is a beautiful allusion in the following expression of our Lord, in his last and consolatory discourse with his disciples, when he assured them he would soon leave

* See Fragments to Calmet, No. 40.

them and go to the Father. "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give unto you; not as the world giveth give I unto you," John xiv. 27.-Since I must shortly be torn from you, I now bid you adieu, sincerely wishing you every happiness not as the world giveth give I unto you not in the unmeaning ceremonial manner the world repeats this salutation: for my wishes of peace and happiness to you are sincere, and my blessing and benediction will derive upon you every substantial felicity.

This sheds light upon one of the most beautiful pieces of imagery which the genius and judgment of a writer ever created. In the epistle to the Hebrews, (ch.xi.) the author informs us with what warm anticipating hopes of the Messiah's future kingdom those great and good men, who adorn the annals of former ages, were animated. These all, says he, died in faith -they closed their eyes upon the world, but they closed them in the transporting assurance, that God would accomplish his promises. They had the firmest persuasion that the Messiah would bless the world. By faith they antedated these happy times, and placed themselves, in idea, in the midst of all their fancied blessedness. They hailed this most auspicious period, saluted it, as one salutes a friend whose person we recognise, at a distance. These all died in faith, died in the firm persuasion that God would accomplish these magnificent promises, though they themselves had not enjoyed them, but only had seen them afar off. God had only blessed them with a remote prospect of them. They were therefore persuaded of them they had the strongest conviction of their realitythey embraced them-with transport saluted* them at a distance-confessing that they were but strangers and pilgrims upon earth, but were all travelling towards a city which had foundations, whose builder and maker is God!

2. Among the Eastern nations it was ever customary for the common people, whenever they approached their prince, or any person of dignity, to prostrate themselves. This mode of address obtained also among the Jews. When honoured with admittance to their sovereign, or introduced to illustrious personages, they fell down at their feet and continued in this servile posture till they were raised. There occur many instances of this custom in the Scriptures. The wise men who came from the East, when they saw the child Jesus with his mother Mary, fell down and worshipped him. Great numbers of those who approached our Saviour, fell down at his feet, and worshipped him. It was also customary to kiss the

* The word in the original is the same as is always used in salutations.

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