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measures adopted by them (ch. iv. 1-14); Esther undertakes their cause, defeats Haman's plot, and causes him to be hanged (ch. iv. 15-vii.); the advancement of Mordecai, and the deliverance and rejoicing of the Jews (ch. viii.); the destruction of the enemies of the Jews, with Haman's sons (ch. ix. 1-19); the institution of the feast of Purim (ch. ix. 20 to end); a recital of the power and glory of Ahasuerus, and of the dignity of Mordecai, ch. x.

SECTION III.

OF THE POETICAL BOOKS.

Under this denomination are comprehended the books which are termed by the Jews the Hagiographa, or Holy Writings: viz. the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon; and also the book of Job. They are termed poetical, because they are generally composed in measured sentences, and possess the distinguishing characteristics of Hebrew poetry. They are placed in our Bibles between the historical and prophetical books.

In reading these parts of the Sacred Writings, much assistance will be derived from a strict attention to the peculiar structure of the sentences. The poetical parallelism, which is generally regarded as the grand characteristic of Hebrew poetry,* is so constructed, that one member of the sentence evolves, illustrates, or confirms the other. Bishop Lowth defines this conformation of the sentences to consist chiefly in a certain equality, resemblance, or parallelism between the members of each period; so that in two lines (or members of the same period), things for the most part shall answer to things, and words to words, as if fitted to each other by a kind of rule or measure. Of this species of composition there is much variety: sometimes it is more accurate and manifest, sometimes more vague and obscure.† Writers who have improved on the terms used by Bishops Lowth and Jebb, have distributed it into four species, viz. parallel lines gradational -antithetic-synthetic-and introverted. A word or two on each of these classes will afford the reader an idea of their

*This is disputed by Mr. Boys, who considers it a general rule of composition prevailing in the Holy Scriptures. See Tactica Sacra, and Key to the Psalms. + Lowth on the Hebrew Poetry, Vol. ii. p. 34. Gregory's Translation.

nature, and assist him to detect them as they present themselves in his reading.

1. Gradational parallels are those, in which the second, or responsive clause so diversifies the preceding one, as generally to rise above it, forming a sort of climax; and sometimes by a descending scale in the value of the related terms and periods, forming an anti-climax. Of the former kind, the following is an example:

Seek ye Jehovah, while he may be found;
Call ye upon him, while he is near :

Let the wicked forsake his way;

And the unrighteous man his thoughts:

And let him return to Jehovah, and he will compassionate him; And unto our God, for he aboundeth in forgiveness.—Is. lv. 6, 7.

In the first line men are invited to seek Jehovah, not knowing where he is, and on the bare intelligence that he may be found; in the second line, having found Jehovah, they are encouraged to call upon him, by the assurance that he is NEAR; in the third line, the wicked, the positive and presumptuous sinner, is warned to forsake his way, his habitual course of iniquity; in the fourth line, the unrighteous, the negatively wicked, is called to renounce the very thought of sinning; while, in the last line, the appropriative and encouraging title, OUR GOD, is substituted for the awful name of JEHOVAH; and simple compassion is heightened into overflowing mercy and forgiveness.*

This kind of parallelism, which is of very frequent occurrence in the Psalms and prophecies of Isaiah, possesses great variety; but our limits will not allow of characterising them. The reader is referred to the works of Bishops Lowth and Jebb, on this subject.

2. Antithetic parallels are those in which two lines correspond with one another, by an opposition of terms and sentiment; when the second is contrasted with the first, sometimes in expressions, sometimes in sense only. Accordingly, the degrees of antithesis are various; from an exact contra-position of word to word, singulars to singulars, plurals to plurals, &c., through the whole sentence, down to a general disparity, with something of a contrariety in the two propositions; for example :

The memory of the just is a blessing;

But the name of the wicked shall rot.-Prov. x. 7.

* Jebb's Sacred Literature, pp. 37, 38.

These in chariots, and those in horses';

But we in the name of Jehovah our God, will be strong:
They are bowed down and fallen;

But we are risen, and maintain ourselves firm.-Ps. xx. 7, , 8.

Of this species of parallelism, as well as the former, there are not only various degrees, but also several varieties in the form.*

3. Constructive parallels are, when the parallelism consists only in the similar form of construction; in which word does not answer to word, and sentence to sentence, as equivalent or opposite; but there is a correspondence and equality between different propositions, in respect of the turn or shape of the whole sentence, and of the constituent parts; such as, noun answering to noun, verb to verb, interrogative to interrogative. The variety of this form is accordingly very great, and is sometimes hardly at all apparent. The following example must suffice :

:--

Whatsoever Jehovah pleaseth,

That he doeth in the heavens, and in the earth;

In the sea, and in all deeps:

Causing the vapours to ascend from the ends of the earth;
Making the lightnings with the rain;

Bringing forth the wind out of his treasures.-Ps. cxxxv. 6, 7.+

4. Introverted parallels are stanzas so constructed, that, whatever be the number of lines, the first line shall be parallel with the last; the second with the penultimate; and so throughout, in an order that looks inward, or, to borrow a military phrase, from flanks to centre. For the discovery of this species of parallelism we are indebted to Bishop Jebb, who has given some striking examples, out of which we select the following one:-

The idols of the heathen are silver and gold :

The work of mens' hand;

They have mouths, but they speak not;

They have eyes, but they see not;

They have ears, but they hear not;
Neither is there any breath in their mouths;

They who make them are like unto them :

So are all they that put their trust in them.-Ps. cxxxv. 15-18.

Jebb's Sacred Literature, pp. 24, 25. † Ibid, p. 25. and Critica Biblica, Vol. i.

p. 367.

The parallelisms here marked out, observes Bishop Jebb, will, it is presumed, be found accurate: in the first line we have the idolatrous heathen;-in the eighth, they who put their trust in idols:-in the second line, the fabrication;—in the seventh, the fabricators:-in the third line, mouths without articulation;-in the sixth, mouths without breath :-in the fourth line, eyes without vision;-and, in the fifth line, ears without the sense of hearing.*

Such are the nature and the various species of parallelisms which pervade the poetical parts of the Sacred Writings, an attention to which is indispensable to a right understanding of the sense, and a just perception of the beauties of these inestimable compositions. It has been generally supposed, that the form of composition here pointed out, is only to be found in short and detached passages of Scripture. A recent writer, however, has shewn, that upon the very same principle as these detached passages are formed, entire chapters, and whole Psalms are constructed.+

Another thing which demands attention in reading the poetical parts of the Sacred Writings, is the frequent change of persons which occurs, without the least intimation thereof being given by the writer. This is occasioned in many cases by the form of composition-dialogue, or a kind of dramatic ode-in which there are different characters introduced, sustaining their respective parts. This observation applies more particularly to the book of Psalms, to the remarks on which the reader is referred.

The Book of Job.

This is one of the most extraordinary books of the Holy Scriptures, and has engaged the attention of the learned in all ages. Considerable diversity of opinion has obtained among biblical writers on its chronology, character, hero, and author. Some have denied the actual existence of the venerable patriarch, and considered the book as a fictitious narration, intended to instruct through the medium of parable. That such a notion should have been entertained by men who credit the writings of Ezekiel or James, is something to excite surprise. Both these inspired writers speak of him as a real, and not as a fictitious personage. See Ezek. xiv. 14; James v. 11. To this we may add, that he is also mentioned as a real person in the apocryphal book of Tobit; as such, he has contemplated immemorially in Arabia and Palestine ;

been

* See Sacred Literature, p. 53, &c.

+ See Boys' Key to the Book of Psalms,

and no good reason can be given, why we should abandon an opinion thus strongly supported. With regard to the time when the events here recorded took place, and when the history was committed to writing, critics are not agreed. Some are of opinion, that it was the earliest written of all the books of the Bible, while others ascribe it to the time subsequent to the captivity. It has been attributed to Moses, to Elihu, to Job himself, to Solomon, and to Ezra. To enter into an examination of these several opinions, each of which has been advocated by men of the profoundest learning and ability, would exceed the limits of this work, nor would it prove materially edifying to the reader. Those who wish to investigate the claims of these different hypotheses, may consult the writings of Lowth, Warburton, Stock, Peters, Faber, Good, or the "Introduction" of Mr. Horne, where he will find an ably written summary of the controversy on these interesting questions. We agree with Dr. Hales, in assigning the time of Job's trial to the period that intervened between the confusion of languages and the call of Abraham. In confirmation of Dr. Hales' opinion, Mr. Townsend* has added several arguments of a moral character, which carry with them considerable weight. In the opinion of these writers, the book was written by Job himself, or one of his contemporaries, and is supposed to have been obtained by Moses when in the land of Midian; and with some alterations, addressed by him to the Israelites. The country in which the scene of this history is laid, is said to be the land of Uz (ch. i. 1), which Mr. Good has distinctly shewn to have been in Idumea. Of the character and structure of this extraordinary book, as a literary composition, several opinions have been entertained. Calmet, Warburton, and others, have regarded it as a drama; Bishop Lowth conceived it to be of a mixed character; but Mr. Good considers it as a regular epic poem, possessing all the prominent features of that species of composition, laid down by Aristotle himself.

The general scope and moral of this sublime production, namely, that the troubles and afflictions of a good man are, for the most part, designed as tests of his virtue and integrity, out of which he will at length emerge with additional splendour and happiness, are common to eastern poets, and not uncommon to those of Greece. But, in various respects, the poem of Job stands alone and unrivalled. In addition to every corporeal suffering and privation which it is possible for man to endure, it carries forward the trial in a manner and to an

* Arrangement of the Old Testament, Vol. i. p. 29.

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