with these words: "Receive this pastoral staff, to be borne before the flock committed to your charge, as a warning of just severity, and correction."

In some convents it was customary for the abbess to take the confession of the nuns; but this practice having led to great abuses it was soon suppressed. St. Basil, however, allowed the abbess to be present with the priest when the nuns made their confession. In the Russian church an abbess is called Hegumina. "At present," says Mr. Pinkerton, "the nunneries in Russia are nothing but asylums for aged or unfortunate females, who thus spend the remainder of their days in retirement, most of them being usefully employed."Present State of the Greek Church.

ABBEY, or ABBATHEY, a monastery, or religious house, whether of men, or of women; and distinguished from religious houses of other denominations by more extensive privileges. Priories in Great Britain were considered as next in dignity to abbeys; there seems, however, but little difference between them, except that the one was under the government of an abbot, and the other of a prior. At first the endowments of abbeys must have been of very limited extent; they soon however acquired, either by their own purchase, or by the pious donations of others, lands and houses to a very great amount in annual value; the principal part of which were obtained from the superstitious upon the condition of burning a taper upon their tomb, of singing masses for the repose of their souls, or the like. Lands that had been once granted could never again come into the hands of the laity, as any alienation by the church was expressly forbidden by the canons. Many statutes therefore were from time to time enacted against these gifts, as they were termed, in mortmain, (see Article, Alienation in mortmain); and in some grants to laymen we meet with prohibitions from selling the lands to religious houses. These provisions however the monks had sufficient art to evade, and abbeys in process of time, instead of being humble places of retirement, to which the studious and devout might resort for the promotion of learning, or exercise of religious meditation, became the abode of luxury, and soon afterwards of its neverfailing companions, dissipation and vice. This ultimately led to the dissolution of all religious houses in these kingdoms, for the particulars of which see. Article, Monastery.

Many of these abbeys were in the enjoyment of very extensive rights and privileges. Some had even the royal prerogative of coining money, and of trying offenders for capital crimes committed within the limits of their own territories. Others had the power of exporting the produce of their lands

free of any duty, and many were exempt from all episcopal jurisdiction. New privileges and immunities were also from time to time granted to these religious houses by bulls from the popes, who were well pleased in this manner to extend their authority in this kingdom.

In the early days of the French monarchy certain districts or territories under the jurisdiction of dukes and counts, and since therefore called duchies and counties, were denominated abbeys, and the dukes and counts themselves called Abbots. Even some of their kings are mentioned in history under this title.

In Russia the abbeys and nunneries have long been an object of peculiar attention. The government of this country, adopting the policy of Peter the Great, has at length brought these institutions under so strict a discipline, as to have effectually eradicated that licentiousness and vice, which had previously been common to them with other establishments of the like nature. The rage therefore for becoming members of these retreats no longer exists, and as all the higher ranks of the Russian clergy are taken from amongst them, the government are careful that such men only shall be permitted to enter the order, as may be likely to prove worthy of their important designation. Both the male and female establishments are divided into three classes, viz. Stauropegia, Coenobia, and Laura. The first two are directly under the government of the holy synod; and the last under that of the archbishops, and bishops of their respective dioceses.

ABBOT, or as it is sometimes written ABBAT, is the superior of a monastery of monks, which has been erected into an abbey. The name is originally Hebrew, and signifies father. The Jews call father, Ab; whence the Chaldeans and Syrians formed Abba, and the Greeks "Aßßas, which the Latins retained, and hence our word Abbot, the French Abbé, &c. Thus that, which was at first a term only of tenderness and affection, became at length a title of dignity and honour. The Jewish doctors were very ambitious of assuming it; and it seems to be in allusion to this affectation that Christ forbad his disciples to call any man their father on earth. St. Jerome also censures the superiors of the monasteries of his time for having assumed the title of Abbots.

By the early ecclesiastical writers we find the heads or principals of monastical institutions indifferently spoken of by the appellation of abbots and archimandrites, the word mandrite signifying, in the Syriac language, a solitary monk. The power of the abbots over their flock was very great, for although perhaps it was not absolute or unlimited, it was seldom or never disputed

by their inferiors; it being, as observed by St. Jerome, a prime part of their consideration to obey their superiors, and do whatever they commanded them. In case of wilful transgression they had power to inflict both spiritual, and corporal punishments. The first were the censures of the church, suspension from the eucharist, and excommunication. Corporal punishment consisted in whipping, and expulsion. Cassian. Instit. lib. ii. c. 16. Palladius also mentions the Flagellum Monachorum, and says that in the church of Mount Nitria there were three whips hanging upon three palm-trees, one of which was for the offending monks. Voluntary whipping seems to have been of much later date. See Bing. Orig. Eccl. b. vii. c. 3. s. 12.

Abbots, although frequently confounded with the clergy, holding as it were an intermediate place between the clerical order, and laymen, were in fact altogether distinguished from them. Monasteries in the first ages of their institution being remote from cities, and for the most part erected in solitudes and deserts, neither the abbots nor monks took any part in ecclesiastical affairs, but were subject to the bishops and ordinary pastors. Being often too distant from any parish church to partake of divine service with the rest of the people, it became usual to send a priest to them to assist in occasional worship, and particularly for the administration of the sacraments. The inconvenience attending this practice led to their being permitted to have priests appointed from their own body, and this duty was usually undertaken by the abbot himself. His function however was limited to the spiritual assistance of his own monastery, and he still continued under obedience to the bishop. In process of time, after the abbots had quitted their solitudes, and mixing with the commerce of men had thrown off their former plainness and simplicity of manners, they assumed the rank of prelates, and attempted to render themselves independent of their bishops. These lofty pretensions however were at length highly censured by the council of Chalcedon; but notwithstanding the laws then made for this purpose, many of the abbots succeeded in maintaining their independency, obtained the appellation of lord, till then conferred only on bishops, and assumed the mitre, as well as other badges of episcopacy. In these attempts they were considerably aided by Gregory VII., who being eagerly bent on humbling the bishops, granted them exemptions both from the temporal authority of their sovereigns, and all other spiritual jurisdiction, except that of Rome. From this time abbots became to be distinguished by different denominations. Those who had procured to themselves the privilege of wearing the mitre, and of exercising

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episcopal authority within their own precincts, were called mitred abbots. Others had assumed the crosier or pastoral staff, and were thence termed crosiered abbots. Some also, affecting the style of the Patriarch of Constantinople, took upon themselves the appellation of œcumenical, or universal abbots, and others that of cardinal abbots, assuming by these titles a superiority over all others. In England the mitred abbots sat with the bishops in the upper house of parliament, and to distinguish them from the other abbots were sometimes called abbots-sovereign, or abbots-general. At the time of the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII. there were twenty-six mitred abbots, and two priors in parliament. The election and benediction of the superior abbots was usually attended with great ceremony; and sumptuous feats were often given upon their installation. Their dress was most superb, called the Dalmatic, or seamless coat of Christ, together with a mitre, crosier, gloves, ring, and sandals. Upon the death of an abbot it was customary to break his seals before the high altar; to lay the body for the space of three days, arrayed in all his pontifical dress, in the middle of the choir, and then to bury him with his crosier in his hand.

In Roman Catholic countries abbots are further distinguished by the appellation of regular, and commendatory. The former take the vow, and wear the habit of their order; the latter are seculars, who having received the tonsure are obliged to take orders as soon as they shall be of proper age.

The title of abbot, from the signification of the word above given, was often conferred upon many other persons standing in the situation of superiors, or governors. Thus amongst the Genoese the chief magistrate of the republic bore the title of Abbot of the people. In France some of their kings have been so called; and the same appellation was sometimes given to dukes and counts, and the districts under their jurisdiction were hence called abbeys.-See Articles, Abbey, and Monasteries; and Helyot, Histoire des Ordres Monastiques; Dugdale's Monasticum Anglicanum; Fosbrooke's Monachism; and Hume's Hist. of England, Hen. VIII.

ABBOTS REGULAR, are those, who take the vow, and wear the habit of their order.

ABBOTS IN COMMENDAM, are seculars, who have received the tonsure, and are obliged by their bulls to take orders, when of proper age.

ABDALS, or ABDALLAT, a name given in Persia, and Arabia, to a sort of Mahometan Friars, usually called Calenders, from Santon Calenderi their founder.-See Article, Calenders.

ABECEDARII, a name given to such psalms as were divided into parts according to the order of the letters of the alphabet, each part having its proper letter at the head of it, after the manner of the divisions of the cxix. psalm. St. Austin is said to have composed a psalm for the common people to learn against the Donatists, which he thus divided with an answer, or hypopsalma (as he calls it) to be repeated at the end of every part in these words, Omnes qui gaudetis in pace, modo verum judicate, as the Gloria Patri, is now repeated at the end of every part of the cxix. psalm.-See Bingh. Orig. Eccl. lib. xiv. ch. 1.

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ABELIANS, sometimes called ABEOLITES, or ABELONIANS, were a sect of heretics, which, about the time of the Emperor Arcadius, are stated by St. Austin to have arisen in the diocese of Hippo, in Africa. Their continuance seems to have been but of short duration, as they are not mentioned by any writer as existing after the reign of Theodosius. They are said to have contended--but on what ground it does not appear-that Abel, although married, still continued to live in continence. Following this supposed example (whence they acquired the name of Abelians), they allowed every man to marry, but forbad them the bridal bed. For the purpose of keeping up the sect, when a man and woman entered into their society, it was incumbent upon them to adopt two children, one of each sex, who were to inherit their property, and afterwards to marry under the same conditions of continence, and the adoption of two other children.

A very peculiar sect, known in different parts of the United States of North America by the name of Shakers, and who have of late years very much increased in property, as well as in numbers, place themselves under the same restriction in regard to marriage, and adopt similar means of continuing the existence of their society. See August. Op. tom. vi.; Bochart. Geog. Sac. lib. ii. cap. 16.

ABJURATION. The solemn abjuration of any heresy, or false doctrine. ABLUTION. A religious ceremony practised by most nations, and by many used, and often enjoined, as a considerable part of their external worship. It generally consisted in washing the body previously to the entering upon any religious rite, and particularly that of sacrifice, which was never performed without it. It is evidently a ceremony of the highest antiquity, having been practised by Moses himself; and thus recommended, as well by his example as by his precept. The heathens adopted it, and Mahomet enjoined the use of it to his followers. Many of the writings of the Greeks and Romans are filled