Timothy, being a younger man, may have been of a more ardent spirit, which needed

to be somewhat restrained.

The leaving of Titus in Crete is supposed to have happened in the year sixty-two, after the apostle was released from his first confinement in Rome. He is believed to have remained there some time, until visited by the apostle Paul, who is thought to have heard of Nero's persecution while he abode in that island, and to have hastened thither in company with Titus, in consequence of his receiving that information. Titus seems to have remained with Paul during his second imprisonment, till he came to answer before Cæsar, and then to have fled to Dalmatia. Whether he did this with or without the apostle's approbation is unknown, nor have we any further account concerning him in scripture. Some antient writers assert that he died in Crete, in the ninety-fourth year of his age.

Philemon, to whom the epistle was written, seems to have been no stranger to the apostle Paul. For, in the first and second verses, the apostle addressed ali the members of Philemon's family, as being well acquainted with them; and, verse 19, be insinuates that Philemon himself was his convert. Philemon's respect for the apostle is mentioned verse 17. He was an inhabitant of Colosse, as appears from the epistle to the Colossians, chap. iv. ver. 9, where Onesimus, Philemon's slave, is called one of them. And, in verse 17, the brethren at Colosse are desired to say to Archippus, (the person mentioned Philemon, verse 2) take heed to the ministry which thou hast received. Besides, the antients believed that Philemon was an inhabitant of Colosse. So Theodoret says expressly in his commentary upon Philemon; and tells us that his house was still remaining at Colosse in his time, that is, in the beginning of the fifth century. And Jerome also, in his commentary upon this epistle, says Philemon was of Colosse. And Theophylact calls him a Phrygian.

Philemon seems to have been a person of great worth as a man, and of some note as a citizen in his own country; for his family was so numerous, that Dr. Macknight supposes that it made a church by itself, or, at least, a considerable part of the church at Colosse. [verse 2.] He was likewise so opulent, that he was able, by the communication of his faith, that is, by his beneficence, to refresh the bowels of the saints. [verse 6, 7.] According to Grotius, Philemon was an elder of Ephesus. But Beausobre speaks of him as one of the pastors of Colosse, in which he is followed by Doddridge. From the apostle's employing Philemon to provide him a lodging at Colosse, Michaelis conjectures that he was one of the deacons there. These authors were led to think Philemon a minister of the gospel, because, in the inscription of the epistle to him, the apostle calls him his fellow-labourer; but that appellation is of an ambiguous signification, being given not only to those who preached the gospel, but to such pious persons, whether men or women, as assisted the apostles in any manner while they were employed in preaching. See Rom. xvi. 8, 3 John, verse 8.

The antients differed as much as the moderns in their opinion concerning Philemon's station in the church. Some of them reckoned him a bishop; but others, fancying that Apphia was his wife, contended that he had no ecclesiastical character whatever; for they became very early to esteem celibacy in ecclesiastical persons. In particular, Hilary the deacon saith expressly that he was one of the laity. Theodoret, Oecumenius, and Theophylact, seem also to have been of the same opinion.

Onesimus, a slave, on some disgust, having run away from his master Philemon, came to Rome; and, falling into want, as is supposed, he applied to the apostle Paul, of whose imprisonment he had heard, and with whose benevolent disposition he was well acquainted, having, it seems, formerly seen him in his master's house. Or the

LINUS, CLEMENT, HERMAS, &c.

523**

fame of the apostle's preaching and miracles having drawn Onesimus to hear some of the many discourses which he delivered in his own hired house in Rome, these made such an impression on him, that he became a sincere convert of the Christian faith. For the apostle calls him, verse 9, his son whom he had begotten in his bonds. After his conversion, Onesimus abode with the apostle, and served him with the greatest assiduity and affection. But, being sensible of his fault in running away from his master, he wished to repair that injury by returning to him. At the same time, being afraid that, on his return, his master would inflict on him the punishment which, by the law or custom of Phrygia, was due to a fugitive slave, and which, as Grotius says, he could inflict without applying to any magistrate, he besought the apostle to write to Philemon, requesting him to forgive and receive him again into his family. The apostle, always ready to do good offices, very willingly complied with Onesimus' desire, and wrote this letter to Philemon; in which, with the greatest softness of expression, warmth of affection, and delicacy of address, he not only interceded for Onesimus' pardon, but urged Philemon to esteem him, and put confidence in him as a sincere Christian. And, because restitution, by repairing the injury that hath been done, restores the person who did the injury to the character which he had lost, the apostle, to enable Onesimus to appear in Philemon's family with some degree of reputation, bound himself, in this epistle, by his hand-writing, not only to repay all that Onesimus owed to Philemon, but to make full reparation also for whatever injury he had done to him by running away from him.

The apostolical institutions, a book of questionable authority, asserts that Onesimus was bishop of Berea. When Ignatius wrote his epistle to the Ephesians, their bishop's name was Onesimus; and Grotius thought he was the person for whom Paul interceded. But, as Lardner observes, this is also uncertain. Mill has mentioned a copy, in which, at the conclusion, it is said, that Onesimus died a martyr at Rome, by having his legs broken.

Linus and Clement, who are mentioned by Paul, are each of them said to have been bishops of Rome. Concerning the latter of these we shall mention several particulars in the History of Martyrs.

Hermas is reported to have written a book of visions, which Dr. Lardner believes to be genuine.

Dionysius the Areopagite is also spoken of as an author, but the works ascribed to him are generally believed to have been of later origin.

The scantiness of the information with which we are furnished concerning the lives of the first followers of Christ, though it may disappoint our curiosity, tends to the confirmation of our faith. It proves that those illustrious men, to whom the world is indebted for the diffusion of evangelical light, did not seek to repay their loss of all things by the accumulation of fame, since they took so little pains to transmit their own names, or those of each other, to au admiring posterity.

CHAPTER XX.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE TROUBLES OF THE JEWS, PARTICULARLY THOSE CALAMITIES WHICH FELL UPON THEM AT THE TIME OF THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM.

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General view of the genealogy and history of the Herodian family-droision of the land of Palestine in the time of our Saviour-the religious privileges of the Jews-the Jewish sects, Pharisees, Sadducces, Essenes, Herodians, and Galileans-the TergumsPilate's report of our Lord's death-he is recalled his death-Vitellius favours the Jews-interesting history of Herod Agrippa-ruin of Herod Antipas-embassy of Philo to Caius Caligula-reign and death of Herod Agrippa-government of Fadus-Alexander succeeds him-insults offered to the Jews-concourse at the passover-quarrel with the Samaritans-dispute of the Jews and Syrians at CæsareaFelix-dreadful government of Florus-Massada seized by the rebels-the Jews massacred in various parts of the country-Jerusalem besieged by Cestius Gallus, who is obliged to retreat the Christians retire to Pella-conduct of Josephus in GalileeVespasian takes the command of a large Roman army-war in Galilee-observations on the discipline of the Roman armies-Gadara taken-memorable defence of Jotapata -Josephus taken prisoner-Jophtha taken-revolt of the Samaritans-Joppa reduced -fight on the sea of Tiberias-Giscala taken-intestine troubles of Jerusalem-an army of Idumeans assist the zealots-dreadful massacre-Zechariah murdered-the zealots divide into factions-Jerusalem besieged-war suspended-history of Simon, the factious leader-all the castles but three reduced by Vespasian-dissensions between Simon and John-Vespasian declared emperor, and Josephus liberated-Vespasian takes Rome-Titus sent against Jerusalem-three factions in that city--Titus reconnoitres the city, and is exposed to great danger-the Romans are repulsed--the factions are reduced to two-Titus levels the country-siege regularly formed-description of Jerusalem-the factions unite-first wall taken-subtlety of Castor, a Jew-second wall taken-Roman army reviewed-Fort Antonia attacked-famine in the citygreat numbers crucified-Titus offers mercy-Roman machines burnt-a wall built round the city-the famine becomes more severe-new works raised by the RomansJosephus wounded by a stone-John plunders the temple-dreadful mortality-devastation throughout the country-Fort Antonia taken-speeches of Josephus to the Jews temple gallery burnt a child eaten by its mother-the temple burned-various horrible massacres-exertions of the priests-they surrender-the lower town taken and burned distress of the rebels-Jews sold for slaves-impregnable forts abandoned

final massacre a calculation of the numbers that were slain the city razed to the ground-soldiers rewarded-Titus leaves Judea-Simon is taken-the triumph of Titus and Vespasian—death of Simon-temple of peace erected-Macheras taken by stratagem-subsequent slaughter of the Jews-poll-tax-dreadful tragedy transacted ut Massada the sufferings of the Jews in Egypt and Cyrene-conclusion.

As the history on which we are now about to enter is uncommonly interesting, there As a peculiar propriety in our recapitulating such circumstances as may be necessary for our more perfect understanding of it. The reader will easily recollect, that, from the time of Judas Maccabeus, the Jewish nation was governed by the Asmonean family, who united the sanctity of the priesthood with the authority of the chief magistrate, till, in consequence of domestic dissensions, they were reduced to the state of subjection to the Roman republic, an event which took place in the sixty-third year before the Christian era. They still, however, retained some shadow of royalty till the year, A. C. 37, when Jerusalem was taken by Herod, and Antigonus, the last of the Asmonean race, committed to a close imprisonment. The reign of Herod, splendid, vigorous, and bloody, continued till a little after the birth of Christ, that is, about three years before the commencement of the common account.

Herod had nine wives; the first of whom, named Doris, was the mother of Antipeter, who is stigmatized as the worst of all Herod's sons, and was put to death for treason during the last sickness of his father. The second of them was Mariamne, the daughter of Simon, the high-priest. By this excellent princess he had a son, whom Josephus names Herod, and Luke, Philip, the husband of that Herodias on whose account John the Baptist was beheaded. The third, who was his brother's daughter, and the fourth, who was his first cousin, both of them died childless. The fifth wife was Martac, a Samaritan, by whom he had Archelaus and Antipas; the former succeeded him in the half of the kingdom, under the name of tetrarch; and the latter, called also Philip, was tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis, and married Salome, the daughter of Herodias, who demanded the head of John Baptist as the reward of her dancing. This prince died without issue. Herod's sixth wife, Cleopatra, who was a native of Jerusalem, had two sons, Herod Antipas and Philip. Herod Antipas was he that married Herodias, his brother Philip's wife, ordered the execution of John, and commanded his soldiers to insult our Saviour. Pallas, the seventh wife, had a sou named Phasael. The eighth was Phædra, by whom he had only one daughter, named Roxana. And, by the last, called Elpis, he had another daughter called Salome.

K

Aristobulus, the son of the beloved Mariamne, left two sons, Agrippa, who is in the Acts called Herod, and noted as the persecutor of the Christians; Herod, king of Chalais, a province of Syria; and a daughter, named Herodias. Agrippa was the father of that king Agrippa before whom Paul pleaded, his sister Berenice, and Dru silla, the wife of Felix.

considered as an Of these, Herod Philip, the son

It has been already mentioned that the land of Israel was now appendage of Syria, and divided into four parts, called tetrarchies. Antipas governed Galilee and Perea, or the country beyond Jordan. of Martac, occupied Iturea and Trachonitis, a rocky country, which afforded great shelter to robbers. Lysanias was tetrarch of Abilene; and Pontius Pilate was the Procurator, or Roman governor, of Judea.

The government of Pilate appears to have been uncommonly bloody and oppressive;

yet, as Dr. Lardner observes, that they had, according to the sacred writers, the free exercise of their religion, is evident from the whole tenour of the history contained in the gospels, and the Acts of the apostles: they had their synagogues; the law and the prophets were read there; our Saviour taught in the synagogues; whenever be healed any lepers, he bade them go and shew themselves to the priests, [Mat. viii. 4.] and offer the gifts that Moses commanded. [Luke v. 14.] There appears to have been a great resort to the temple at Jerusalem from Galilee and other parts at all their usual great feasts; they were at full liberty to make what contributions they saw fit to their sacred treasury [Mark xii. 41, 44, Luke xxi. 1]; and, so secure were they, that they used indirect practices to enrich it. [Mat. xv. 5, Mark vii. 11, 12.] There is no mention made in the history of our Saviour's ministry of any restraint or obstruction they met with, save that one of the Galileans, whose blood Pilate had mingled with their sacrifices. [Luke xiii. 1.]

That they might thus freely perform all the services of their religion, though they be supposed to have been then under the Roman government, is not at all improbable; for the Romans had ever permitted the people they conquered to practise their own religious rites in their own way; and the Jews were now at full liberty to worship God according to the institution of Moses, we are assured by Josephus, who has left us the history of these times. The Roman presidents did indeed, for some time, put in and turn out their high-priests at pleasure; the Roman governors did, indeed, sometimes offer them abuses, or suffer abuses to be committed in the country contrary to the institutions of the law, as they did also injure them in their civil properties; but these abuses seem not to have been very numerous. When any were committed, it was without the emperor's authority, and usually the Jews, at length, obtained satisfaction.

As a proof of their perfect freedom in matters of religion, Dr. Larduer produces the instance of their being allowed to follow their own customs, though contrary to those of all other nations in the matter of divorce. It has been said, that whosoever shall put away his wife, let him give her a writing of divorcement: but I say unto you, whosoever shall put away his wife, save for the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit adultery; and whosoever shall marry her that is divorced, committeth adultery. [Mat. v. 31, 32.] It is evident, from the manner in which our Lord' condemns all divorces, save those made for the cause of fornication, that they did, at this time, put them in practice on other accounts. This appears also from the questions put to him concerning this matter, and the answers he gave to them, and the surprize and uneasiness which the disciples express at the decision, when he forbade such licentious divorces as those made for every cause.

1

The Jews were, at this time, divided into several sects, among which the most dis tinguished were the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes.

The Pharisees are generally supposed to have derived their name from a Chaldaic word, which signifies, to separate; because they separated themselves from the rest of the Jews, leading a more austere life, and professing a greater degree of holiness, and more religious observation of the law. It is difficult to fix their precise origin. While some suppose they existed in the time of Ezra, and others, that they sprung up but a little before the Christian era, a third party have embraced a more probable opinion, which fixes their rise in the reign of the Maccabees. Dr. Lightfoot thinks the Pharisaism rose up gradually from a period which he does not assign to the maturity of a sect. It is certain, from the account given by Josephus, that, in the time of John Hyrcanus, about one hundred and eight years before Christ, the sect was not only formed, but made a considerable figure. According to Basnage, one Aristobulus,