children committed to his charge, had introduced | when Christian Churches attain a decision of the Bible among them, and laboured to instil into character, an elevation of piety, and a strength of their minds the principles of the Gospel. The faith which they do not exhibit in ordinary times, consequence was, that many of his pupils were and which tell powerfully on the world around withdrawn, and pecuniary difficulties threatened them. Thus it was with the persecuted, despised to suspend his labours. Under these circumstances, Church at Lyons. When regular preaching was some devoted persons came forward to assist him; commenced in the room which had been hired for so that he was enabled to continue his school, the purpose, the hearers on the Sabbath mornings although under the necessity of teaching the chil- amounted to one hundred or one hundred and dren gratuitously, and the number of his scholars fifty-in the evenings, to between one hundred now rapidly increased. To them Mr Monod him- and fifty and two hundred. The number was not self began to communicate religious instruction. large, but it steadily increased. There was, espeHe further commenced a school, for the same cially, an increase of Roman Catholic hearers. purpose, in the church, between the services, on Curiosity was awakened. The minds of many the Sabbath-day. The schools have prospered; began to be stirred. Those who had felt the and it is an interesting fact, that there are now power of the truth themselves, became zealous for five schools (including the infant and adult ones) the conversion of others. Bibles were lent to in connection with the Protestant Church at those who were strangers. They read them. Lyons, all of which are prospering; and in which, Their hearts were touched by the Divine Spirit. exclusive of adults, there are hundreds of the They began to pray, and to attend the house of children of both Protestant and Roman Catholic God. One zealous individual laboured to draw parents receiving that literary and religious in- others to the chapel, and succeeded in drawing struction which, through the blessing of God, may three Roman Catholic women, along with their fit them to be members and ornaments of the husbands, to attend regularly the ministrations of Church of Christ in the next generation. Mr Monod. In one house, a mother and her When the new church was formed, there were daughter were bigoted Roman Catholics, who many adverse circumstances, which tended to spurned from them the Word of God. The throw doubt and uncertainty over its future pros- mother at last was persuaded to accept a copy. pects, and which, but for the confidence which She became interested in its contents. She was inspired by the promises of Jehovah, might soon came to the chapel, and her daughter folhave led its founders to despair. Owing to the lowed. At this time Mr Monod's labours were poverty of the principal part of its members, it more abundantly blessed than when he had was impossible to say in what manner the ne- preached in the Protestant Temple, before a large cessary expenses of the chapel, the school, the and influential audience. This he ascribed to minister, and his family, should be liquidated. the Divine blessing attending the frequent and This little company of the servants of Christ, fervent preaching of the Gospel, the earnest however, looked above to their Master for aid, prayers of the Christians, their union with each and, in his providence, he marvellously supplied other when persecuted by the world, and the their wants and extricated them from their diffi- holy example of their lives. Among the subordiculties. An English lady, whose name was not nate means which God was pleased to bless, was known, sent fifty pounds for the new church. a meeting regularly held for the purpose of proSoon after, another lady, English also, inclosed posing and answering important questions on subone hundred and fifty pounds; and various simi-jects intimately connected with vital godliness. lar donations were sent from other quarters. In reference to this part of their history, Mr Monod remarks, that he should bless God all his life for the exercise of faith-painful and humiliating, but most salutary-to which they were then called, when they received from God, in answer to prayer, their daily bread, neither more nor less. Humanly speaking, but for these unexpected unsolicited supplies, the cause at Lyons must have been abandoned, and the little flock left as sheep without a shepherd. It is worthy of very deep and serious consideration, that there is a large number of infant Churches rising up in France, which are compassed about with the same difficulties and dangers as was the early Church at Lyons, which, could efficient pecuniary aid be granted, would, in all probability, grow up into vigour and maturity, but which otherwise will be dwarfed and stunted in their growth, if they do not actually expire.

The time of persecution is usually the period

These meetings were commenced with singing and prayer. Then those individuals who had questions to propose brought them forward, while Mr Monod, in a simple and familiar, but solemn and impressive, manner, endeavoured to solve their difficulties, and press home the great truths of the Gospel upon their hearts and consciences. While the conversation was thus proceeding, the females who were present were diligently employed in preparing garments for the poor.

Another important means of extending the religious impression was the employment of colporteurs. The Geneva Society, whose exertions in disseminating the Word of God through France have had so powerful an effect in awakening that religious anxiety which is now eagerly calling for a preached Gospel from all parts of the country, were of the greatest service to the young Church at Lyons. They placed, in the first instance, two (afterwards four) of their colporteurs under their direction, while they themselves supported them

and by the judgments that overtake individuals, and families, and nations; but we understand, from the threatenings and warnings of the written Word, that there still is in reserve "the wrath to come."

at their own expense. The first month these | by the existence and prevalence of disease and death, humble itinerant labourers commenced their work in Lyons, they sold five hundred Testaments; on the following month, four hundred. Sometimes they lent their books-generally they sold them; very rarely did they give them gratuitously. In the course of their labours they met with the most determined opposition, and were exposed to every species of insult; but the rage of the people was invariably to be traced to the hostility of the priests, who left no method untried for the purpose of inflaming them against men who had the audacity to disseminate the Word of the living God. One important effect which resulted from the labours of the colporteurs was, that an earnest desire to hear the Gospel was sometimes awakened in places where it had no existence before. Thus, in a beautiful village, about four leagues from the city, they met with a very favourable reception. This they made known to Mr Monod, who visited the place, and found several individuals eager to hear the truth. These procured the loan of a room, in which both himself and another individual occasionally preached, to a large company who assembled to hear the glad tidings of salvation.

Mr Monod, soon after his deposition, had been urged to accept the office of Professor of the Theological School at Geneva; also, that of Preacher in the Evangelical Church at Lausanne. Both of these situations held forth the prospect of a sufficient temporal provision for himself and family, whereas at Lyons he was embarrassed with pecuniary difficulties. His own inclination disposed him to make choice of the field of labour opened up to him at Geneva; but, after solemn deliberation and prayer, he resolved to remain with the Church at Lyons-to whose stability and success his presence seemed at that time indispensable. In the course of time, however, the Church became more firmly established, and its numbers were much increased. At length one of the professorships in the University of Montauban, in which hitherto Socinian heresies had been taught to the students, was offered to Mr Monod, who deemed it a situation of so much importance, and calculated to enable him to exert so much influence over the minds and views of the young Protestant preachers, that it seemed to him that God, in his providence, was calling upon him to accept it. He accordingly removed from Lyons to Montauban, where he has since been labouring to infuse the principles of the Gospel into the minds of the students and in which sphere of usefulness he has received an important accession of strength, by the appointment of Mr De Felice, an able and pious man, to another of the chairs in the same university.

ON "THE WRATH TO COME."

BY THE REV. WILLIAM NIsbet, Minister of New Street Parish, Edinburgh. WRATH, in a variety of ways, is already "revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men;" it is revealed by the outward aspect of creation,

The nature of "the wrath to come is surrounded by mystery, and enveloped in much darkness; yet & glimmering of light is cast upon the gloom, and something with regard to its character may be gleaned from the Sacred Volume. It is distinctly stated, that "eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him;" and it may be as distinctly declared, that inconceivable horrors shall reign in the sad and dismal dungeons of remorse and despair. We learn, however, that the unbelieving and finally impenitent shall experience a two-fold punishment-the punishment of loss, and the punishment of sense; they shall experience what is named the punishment of loss, for they shall be banished from the abodes of bliss; and they shall experience what is named the punishment of sense, for they shall feel all the corporeal pain and all the mental anguish of which they shall be capable. Here we can contemplate the rapid river and the refreshing stream, the verdant valley and the fertile field, the heath-clad mountain and the waving forest, the lovely landscape and the lucid lake, the bright sky and the broad sea; here we are allowed to listen to melody and music, and we are told the tidings of salvation; visited by hope; and those who arrive at the new and here, even when troubled and distressed, we are Jerusalem shall join an innumerable company of angels, the general assembly and church of the first-born, the Judge of all, the just made perfect, and Jesus the Mediator; but the unpardoned shall be severed from every cheering sight and every pleasant sound, shall be shall perceive its shining walls assume a frowning driven from the gates of the celestial sanctuary, and unfallen and the redeemed, shall not be led to the “livaspect shall be shut out from the fellowship of the ing fountains," and shall find that the beatific vision is sad exclusion and such awful forfeiture, the children of sought in vain. But, besides being doomed to such disobedience are destined to endure the greatest positive misery and grief, and the most excruciating torsuffering and the stings of an accusing conscience shall ment in body and in spirit. The force of physical combine to make them ineffably wretched. There have often been heard, in this world, the wild and incohehis ruinous career; the tyrant frequently has started rent ravings of the blaspheming infidel, at the end of on his midnight couch, because his pillow has been planted, as it were, with thorns; and the kindness of

relatives and friends has drawn the sable curtain of

silence and concealment over many a tremendous deathbed scene; but the sorrows of the wicked on this side the grave, although "multiplied" indeed, are as “less than nothing, and vanity," when weighed in the balance with their future woe; for we read of "the worm "—of "the fire"-of" the lake of fire and brimstone" of " the wine of the wrath of God, which is poured out without mixture into the cup of his indignation," of “outer darkness"—and of "weeping and gnashing of teeth;" and in its full extent the language shall be verified which alludes to men as "scorched with great

beat," and which informs us that "they gnawed their | tempest, to whom the mist of darkness is reserved for tongues for pain." ever; and as "wandering stars, to whom is reserved the blackness of darkness for ever;" and when those who have the mark of the beast in their forehead, or in their hand are mentioned, it is declared, that "the smoke of their torment ascendeth up for ever and ever." The picture drawn by the poet is appalling, yet that picture shall be more than realized.

II.

Since that vast orbe, which doth the rest embrace,

More swift than thoght still whirls about time's wheeleSince year's serpentine course with speedy pace

Doth a continuall revolution feel

Since houres still slyde, still life away doth steale-
Why, then, my soule, beere art thou luld asleepe,

As if on earth's low stage were placed thy well,

In streams of slydying pleasurs, drencht too deepe?
Breake of thy dreame-from world's basse fetters creepe,
Thy soveraine good with eyes vnsyld to view;
Ryse from earth's vaile to climbe that mountaine stecpe-
The only station of contentment true.

Sooth no thy selfe, my soule, shake of delay-
Life's flowre both spreideth and fadeth in a day.
III.

As waue doth waue, so day doth day displace;
Time's clock goes quickly-moments swiftly slyde;
The longest age scarce doth a minut's space,
If with eternity compaird, abyde.

Yet mortals, chargd with madnesse, fraught with pryde,
Day-livers, dreame to see the world's last date!
Guyle held no guilt, craft they with craft doe hyde;
Sinne heape on sinne, deceat upon deceat;

No paine is spaird to gaine the name of great-
Prizde with contempt, aymd at by few, is good.
But ah! and buildst thou vp a slipy state,
With pressing vsury-with bribes-with bloode?
Madde man, yet dost not, neither wilst take heede,
Thy life ore hell hings by a slender threed.

IV.

My life's fraile barge, with an impetuous tyde,
Is on this world's tempestuous ocean tost;
For mee, as for our second sire, provyde

A saving ark, O Lord, or I am lost.

Or as thy people (while proud Pharaoh's hoast

Seas over whelmd) through floods firme passage fand,

A vessell weake, mee save-at too much cost

Redeem't, to bee depriv'd of promis'd land.

As carst to Peter, Lord, streach foorth thine hand,
On liquid floare while as his fayth did faynt;
Let not betwixt ince and thy mercie stand
That I a sinner vile-hee liv'd a saint.

Thy glorie greater, greater is thy praise,
Mee, a dead Lazere, from sinne's grave to raise.

ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF ALPHABETI-
CAL WRITING.

[Abridged from "Science of Articulate Sounds." By the Rev.
J. Brodie, Monimail.]

WITH regard to the origin of Alphabetical writing, there have long been two opposing and contradictory theories, both of them being supported by men of talent and research. The one considers it as an original and distinct invention, the other regards it as merely an improvement upon the art of pictorial representation.

|

signified the months; the beetle, the world; the lion, strength, &c. And when they began to mix these symbols with hieroglyphics, intended simply to denote the object represented, they added another mark to show when they were used symbolically.”

"This excited a desire to discover some more short and simple method of expressing ideas. And as most of the words which were attached to each of these figures or marks, were monosyllables, these marks were finally taken as the expression of the hard sound of the consonants with which each monosyllable began, and thus by degrees mankind came to the invention of the alphabet."

Now, however plausible and ingenious this theory may be, it must be kept in mind that it rests entirely on conjecture. To use Spinetto's words, "we are totally unacquainted with the primitive efforts of the Egyptians in hieroglyphic writing."

With regard to the Egyptian hieroglyphics, all that we can learn from the testimony of ancient writers only informs us that they made use both of hieroglyphical characters and alphabetic marks. And the recent researches of Dr Young and Mr Champollion have shown that all the hieroglyphics of every different epoch are essentially the same, and are merely the marks by which the ancient Egyptians represented the simple sounds of their language, with a few symbolical figures and arbitrary characters intermixed. Hieroglyphics were merely a kind of ornamental letters. Different figures were employed to mark the sounds with which their names began, and thus formed a pleasing and ingenious kind of enigmatical writing, by which they not only represented the names and titles of those to whom their monuments were erected; but made an elegant allusion to their character and deeds.

Laying aside, therefore, the theory which considers symbols and hieroglyphics as the first step towards the invention of alphabetical writing, which is allowed, even by its supporters, to rest entirely on analogy and probability, and which is in truth directly opposed to both, let us now endeavour to ascertain the origin of writing, by tracing the different alphabets to their source.

By far the greater part of the inhabitants of Europe employ letters which are either the same as those used by the Romans, or evidently derived from them. The rest make use of a modification of the alphabet of the Greeks. We may, therefore, pass at once to the examination of the more ancient characters of Greece and Rome.

The latter is the theory more commonly received. The arguments supporting it, as given by the Marquis Spinetto, in his Lectures on Hieroglyphics, are as follow:-"Every thing is emblematic, every thing is figurative, every thing is more or less hieroglyphical, If, in the first place, we examine the Latin letters, amongst the ancients." "The whole of nature was their forms and orders are sufficient to show that they disguised, and emblematically represented by the primi- were originally the same as the Greek. And the most tive inhabitants of our globe. This is proved by the respectable authors, both ancient and modern, are geneallegorical figures and images of the Indian and Egyp-rally agreed that the Latin letters are derived from the tian gods. It is confirmed by the frequent use of parable and allegory in the sacred writings, by the enigmas of the ancient oracles, &c. Hence, men were led to represent various actions by figures and symbols. The picture records of the aboriginal Mexicans exhibit this mode of communicating ideas in the first stage of its progress. In them the transactions of each reign are represented by rude sketches of soldiers, warlike instruments, houses, trees, &c. by which were denoted the battles fought and towns subdued."

"Originally the figure of the object was employed by all nations to express the object; but as the drawing of the figure was a troublesome and laborious operation, another character was adopted, which expressed only the outlines of the figure, and farther abbreviations and emblems being gradually introduced, an arbitrary mark came at the last to be substituted in its place."

“Fortunately the Egyptians avoided falling into this terrible labyrinth, by the invention and use of symbols. Two arms holding a bow represented a battle; the moon

Greek.

The original identity of the different European alphabets being thus established, our next inquiry must be, whether they were derived from the Hebrew, or were a separate and independent invention,

For directing us in this investigation, we must refer to the history of their introduction, and to the primary forms, power, number, names, and arrangement of the letters.

The testimony of history is abundantly explicit. Diodorus tells us that "the Syrians were the inventors of letters."

Herodotus testifies that "certain Phoenicians that came with Cadmus, brought into Greece many arts and sciences, nay, even letters, which, in my opinion, were not known to the Greeks before his time." Similar statements are made by other eminent writers, who, instead of advocating the opinion that alphabetical writing was invented in Egypt, expressly affirm the contrary.

We thus find that the Hebrew letters, by a natural

corruption, and easy adaptation, were gradually transformed into those used by the Greeks and Romans; which, with some slight alterations, continue to be employed by all the inhabitants of modern Europe.

of the Egyptians only enabled them to disguise it; the arts of Greece, and even the science of Britain, have been unable to check its corruption; it still stands forth, like Eve, "fairer than any daughter."

In like manner, the Eastern alphabets are all derived from the Hebrew or Phoenician. Dr Murray gives us,nuity, we are led to regard it as an antediluvian invenas the result of his inquiries, his decided opinion, s. 226, that "though the various alphabets of the nation of Asia have led some to imagine that they have been invented without the assistance of the Phoenician, it now appears evident, that alphabetical writing rose from the Phicenicians; and, in its Eastern course, settled early at Babylon, from whence it proceeded into India."

All known alphabets have thus been derived from one; of which the Hebrew, Samaritan, and Chaldaic, are varieties, differing from each other only in a few triding particulars.

If the art of writing be the result of human ingetion; but when we find that the first mention made of its use is in the history of the Jews (Exod. xxviii. 21); when we see that, in its primary state, it was peculiarly adapted to the situation in which they were placed, and to the purposes for which they were called out from among the nations; when, unlike every other art, the farther back we trace it the more nearly it approaches to perfection, we are led to conclude that it was not discovered by man, but communicated, as Cicero (Tusc. lib. i.) and Livy (lib. ii.) record, "Miraculo et divinitate." It was the gift of God to his people. It was given to Noah, and the patriarchs, to enable them to keep in memory the goodness of the Lord in man's creation, and his justice in destroying the world of the ungodly. It was communicated to the Jews, that they might by its means keep pure and The want of vowel marks may seem at first a great uncorrupted the laws which Jehovah promulgated; and defect; but even this omission was in many respects it has been preserved to us, that we may make ouradvantageous, and admirably adapted to the circum-selves acquainted with God by the perusal of the Restances of the patriarchal times. cord which he has given.

Our next inquiry must be, has this first of alphabets been improved in its transmission to modern times?

It is capable of expressing almost every consonant which we find in any language; yet it has no useless letters.

When men live in small communities, having com paratively little intercourse with their neighbours, when there is no general standard by which pronunciation is regulated, there is a strong tendency in all language to change. This is especially seen in the substitution of one vowel for another; and, among those who make use of the same original language, and employ the same characteristic pronunciation, it forms alinost the only difference between the dialects of different provinces and of different ages. Where there is no foreign admixture, the consonants remain, in a great measure, unchanged; but the case is widely different with respect to the vowels. We may refer to our own language for illustration of this fact. Since our English orthography was fixed, there have been very few alterations made on the consonantal part of the language; but nearly a half of the vowels have been changed.

The system of alphabetical writing used by the Jews has been characterised as very imperfect. Dr Burney, in his "History of Music," speaks of it with the utmost contempt; telling us that the Jews "had scarcely a vowel in their language;" but we soon find reason to form another opinion, if we consider the circumstances in which that people were placed. In French and English, words continue the same in spelling, though the pronunciation be perpetually changing; consequently, the vowel marks in many cases only serve to puzzle and perplex the reader; and, if pronunciation continues to change while the orthography is unaltered, our books will become collections of mere arbitrary marks, like the writings of the Chinese. In Latin, words were spelled as pronounced, and the consequence was, that the writings of the older authors could hardly be understood, as was formerly remarked, in the time of Augustus. Neither of these methods was adapted to the situation of the Jews, among whom it was peculiarly requisite that their written records should be permanently intelligible; and the system which they employed was, in this respect at least, far preferable to

any other.

Taking all these circumstances into account, when we find the Hebrew the most copious and the most philosophical of alphabets, and, at the sametime, admirably suited to the circumstances of the people who employed it, the conclusion necessarily follows, that as it was the first, so it is the best of all. This parent of alphabets has received no improvement since Jehovah first wrote in it the tables of the Law. The learning

Let us, then, be ever anxious, in using the gift, to glorify the Giver.

THE GOURD.

BY THE REV. WILLIAM PATRICK.

OUR translators have rendered the kikajon of the Sacred Text (Jonah iv. 6-10) gourd, as above, by which they must have meant some species of the genus cucumis or cucurbita; for it can scarcely be imagined that they could suppose the " plant of Jonah" to be identical with the only remaining genus which receives that name in the English language, viz., the adansonia or sour gourd, a singular tree found only in Africa, usually reaching not more than fifteen feet in height, but of a most unequal girth, often expanding to the amazing size of from seventy to eighty feet in circumference, and outliving all other vegetables, even the oak, by at least a thousand years. The cucurbita family are a genus of plants very nearly allied to those of cucumis, and are distinguished from them chiefly by the swelling rim of the seed. Both of these are herbs of humble growth, endure but one year, and have trailing herbaceous stems, furnished with tendrils for climbing. These are the gourds of the British botanist; but the cucumis family, in particular, is vulgarly termed the gourd. Of these there are thirteen species, with many varieties. One of the species, the "globe cucumber or gourd," the Cucumis prophetarum, has obtained its specific name in allusion to Jonah's gourd. This is a plant smaller every way than the common melon, and has a nauseous odour. The fruit is smooth, armed with soft prickles; is variegated with irregular streaks, alternately greenish and yellowish; and is as bitter as coloquintida itself. It is a native of Arabia and the Levant. This is undoubtedly the plant alluded to by our translators, and by the botanist who first gave it its modern name. That the learned Hebraists of our Bible, however, were not sure of their plant, is evident from the marginal reading (Jonah iv. 6), where they subjoin "gourd or palmerist." The latter of these words is a corruption of the term palma christi, the name of a plant very common in eastern countries, and known in modern times as the castor-oil plant, or Ricinus communis of botanists. This is a plant of the class Diacia, order Pentandria; or of the class Polygamia, order Diacia. It abounds in Syria, often to a very inconvenient degree; rises with a strong herbaceous stalk