THE ICHTHYOSAURUS, OR FISH LIZARD. As many of our readers have no opportunity of seeing the fossil remains of this gigantic reptile, we intend giving a brief description of it, but, before doing so, it may be necessary to explain the meaning of the term fossil. The word is derived from the Latin verb fosseo, "to dig," and formerly signified anything dug out of the earth: minerals and organic remains were alike called fossils, the latter being distinguished as extraneous fossils. Organic remains were also known as PETRIFACTIONS, from two Latin words signifying a conversion into stone, but the term fossil is now generally applied to those remains of animals and plants that are found imbedded in the earth, the pores of some of which have been so penetrated by earthy or stony substances, that the consistence appears to be entirely changed, while others are preserved almost in their natural state; an instance of which occurred some years ago, when a lily encrinite, an extinct species of zoophyte resembling a lily resting on its stalk, was found imbedded in a limestone rock, with the flesh adhering to its bones. These fossils are supposed to have existed at a very remote period, which supposition is supported by the fact, that many of those found in the lower strata, or beds of earth, have not now a single living representative. clavicles, like those of the ornithorynchus, offers a third and not less striking example of selection of contrivances, to enable animals of one class to live in the element of another class*. A most important discovery was made, some years ago, at Lyme Regis, by Professor Buckland. He had frequently observed numerous stony bodies, resembling kidney potatoes, lying near the remains of the ichthyosaurus, which, upon close examination, were found to be the refuse of that animal, petrified as hard as the most compact marble. These bodies, which the learned Professor has called coprolites, from kopros, dung, and lithos, a stone, were found to contain the scales, teeth, and bones of fishes, which appeared to have passed undigested through the body, similar to the fragments of bones that are found undigested in the refuse of the ravenous hyana. Dr. Buckland also found in one of these stones the vertebræ of an ichthyosaurus which he calculates must have been four feet in length at least: thus showing that these remarkable creatures not only preyed upon their weaker neighbours, but actually devoured the smaller individuals of their own kind. In all these various formations (says Dr. Buckland) the coprolites form records of warfare waged by successive generations of inhabitants of our planet on one another, and the general law of nature, which bids all to eat and to be eaten in their turn, is shown to have been co-extensive with period of the world's history, fulfilling their destined office animal existence upon our globe, the carnivora in each to check excess in the progress of life, and maintain the balance of creation. We have thus obtained a distinct idea of the nature long extinct race of animals. Remains of the ichthyoof a very important part of the bodily economy of this saurus have been found in all the strata called by geologists, the secondary formation, but are more frequently met with in the Lias limestone, at Lyme Regis in Dorsetshire. Among these is the ICHTHYOSAURUS, which derives its name from the Greek words, ichthys, a fish, and saurus, a lizard. This extraordinary creature greatly resembled the lizard tribe, partaking at the same time of the nature of a fish. Seven species have been found, all of great size, the largest being upwards of forty feet in length. Its snout resembled that of a porpoise, its head was like the lizard's, having two long slender jaws, each furnished with upwards of eighty sharp conical teeth, shaped like those of the crocodile; while the cavity for the eye, in some specimens, exceeded fourteen inches in diameter. The head of an ichthyosaurus, formerly in the possession of a gentleman at Bristol, measured ten feet in length; being joined to the body by a very short neck. The body was arranged on a long spinal column, composed of more than one hundred vertebræ, or joints, similar to those of a fish, to which a quantity of ribs were attached, and terminating in a long broad tail, which, it is conjectured, possessed great strength. Instead of the feet with which the lizard and crocodile are furnished, the ichthyosaurus had four paddles, resembling those of the whale, which enabled it to move through the water in the manner of that animal; the breast-bone and fore paddles were similar to those of the ornithorynchus, or water mole, an aquatic quadruped found in New Holland, THE defects of the older steed may be compensated by the which enabled it to descend to the bottom of the water energies of the young rider, whereas the violence of the in search of food. Thus, it will be seen, the ichthyo-young horse requires to be moderated by the cold temper of saurus presented a most singular combination of forms: the older.-WALTER SCOTT. it had the snout of a porpoise, the teeth of a crocodile, the head of a lizard, vertebræ like a fish, the breastbone of the ornithorynchus, and the paddles of a whale. As the form of the vertebræ by which it is associated with the class of fishes, seems to have been introduced for the purpose of giving rapid motion in the water to a lizard inhabiting the element of fishes, so the further adoption of a structure in the legs, resembling the paddles of a whale, was superadded, in order to convert these extremities into powerful fins. The still further addition of a furcula and We would recommend those of our readers who have an opportunity, to visit the British Museum, where they will see specimens of the ichthyosaurus as they were found imbedded in limestone; but to those who cannot spare the time, this brief account may serve to which so highly illustrates the handy works of that ALLconvey an idea of this curious relie of a former period, POWERFUL BEING who "made heaven and earth, the seas, and all that in them is." J. G. C. BUCKLAND'S Bridgewater Treatise, Vol. I., p. 187. WHOEVER would proceed in the right path, must be attentive to the dangers on each side.-ARCHBISHOP SECKER. THE approach of the parting hour is saddening, and the thoughts which in happier moments we give to the tongue, the heart refuses to part with then.-LOVER. JOHN W PARKER, PUBLISHER, WEST STRAND, LONDON. | inmates of our cottages hail the arrival of the martin, and consider themselves lucky, if he chooses their roof for his abode, because they say, the house where the martin builds his nest will never be destroyed by fire. MALE AND FEMALE. (Nest, a Gourd.) WITH the inhabitants of the United States, the martin is a greater favourite than even with us. We all like to hear the twittering of the martin on the eaves of our houses, as he comes in the early Spring to seek a fit place for his nest, and many of us take a great interest in watching the proceedings of the bird, as he sets about nis task with so much patience and ingenuity, working incessantly at those hours of the day, when his plasterwork will dry slowly, and give stability to the dwelling, and patiently waiting during the warmth of noon-tide, lest the work, drying too quickly, should be insecure, and crumble away. There is even a superstitious veneration for the bird in some parts of this country; the VOL. XXII. But we are not aware, that regard for this bird has ever snown itself here, in the same way that it is manifested among our American brethren. Among them, not only are birds of a similar kind encouraged to build on the roofs of their dwellings, but all the cities are furnished with martin-boxes, or houses for their especial reception. These houses are held in a manner sacred, and it is very seldom that even lads, bent on mischief, think of disturbing the favoured martin. Almost every country 692 tavern has one of these martin-boxes, fixed on the upper part of the sign board, and Audubon, the American ornithologist, says he has observed that the handsomer the box, the better does the inn generally prove to be. This admirable writer gives an amusing instance of the pertinacity with which these birds maintain their rights, when they have once chosen a place to build in. He tells us that he had a large and commodious house built, and fixed on a pole, for the reception of martins, in an inclosure near his house, where for some years several pairs reared their young. One winter he also put up some smaller boxes, with a view to invite bluebirds to build nests in them. The martins arrived in the Spring, and taking a fancy to these smaller apartments, turned out the lovely blue-birds, and forcibly took possession of their abode. One of the blue-birds fought vigorously for his home, in which there was a nest nearly finished, but the more powerful blows of the martin compelled him to give way. The vanquished blue-bird from this time took every opportunity to annoy the usurper, as much as lay in his power, but the martin was little affected by it, only showing his head at the entrance of the box, and retorting with accents of exultation and insult. Viewing this unjust procedure, the owner of the box thought it time to interfere; he mounted the tree to which the box was fastened, caught the martin, and clipped his tail with scissors, in the hope that such mortifying punishment might make him retreat to his own tenement. No such thing; as soon as he was launched into the air, he rushed back to the box. The experiment was repeated, but the desired effect was not produced. Audubon seeing that the pertinacious martin kept the box in spite of all his wishes that he should give it up, seized him in anger and disposed of him in such a way that he never returned to the neighbourhood. This harbinger of Spring seems perfectly devoid of fear in his approach to human habitations; he sets about his nest with the air of a privileged bird, and if no fitting habitations are provided for him, he is not long in providing for himself. At the house of a gentleman of Louisiana, some martins took possession of sundry holes in the cornices, and there reared their young for several years, until the insects, which they introduced to the dwelling, induced the owner to think of a reform. Carpenters were employed to clean the place, and close up the apertures by which the birds entered the cornice. When this was done, the martins seemed in despair: they brought twigs and other materials, and began to form nests wherever a hole could be found in any part of the building; but they were so perseveringly chased off, that after repeated attempts, the season being in the mean time advanced, they were forced away, and betook themselves to some woodpecker's holes, on the dead trees about the plantation. The next Spring a house was built for them in the usual manner. The arrival of this bird appears to be welcomed by all classes, and his early notes, though not very melodious, are the signal to industry, and the harbinger of fine weather. The farmer and the husbandman rise to renew their labours at the twittering of the martin, whose note is heard before that of all other birds. According to Audubon, the Indian is also fond of the martin's company, and hangs up a calabash on some twig near his camp, and in this cradle the bird keeps watch, and sallies forth to drive off the vulture that might otherwise commit depredations on the deer skins, or pieces of venison exposed to the air to be dried. The humbled slave of the Southern States takes pains to accommodate this favourite bird. The calabash is neatly scooped out, and attached to the flexible top of a cane, brought from the swamp, where that plant usually grows, and placed close to his hut. It is alas! to him a mere memento of the freedom which he once enjoyed; and, at the sound of the horn which calls him to his labour, The purple martin begins to prepare its nest about the middle, or twentieth of April. The materials are generally dry leaves, slender straws, hay, and feathers in considerable quantity. The eggs are from four to six, and of a pure white. Two broods appear during the season: the first in May, the second late in July. While the female is laying, and before incubation commences, both birds are away from the nest the greater part of the day; but when the female is sitting, the male is very attentive to her, and occupies her place when she goes abroad for recreation. He sits on the outside of the house dressing and arranging his plumage, but frequently goes to the door of her apartment, as if to inquire how she does. Wilson notices that his notes seem at this time to have assumed a peculiar softness, and his congratulations are expressive of much tenderness. Conjugal fidelity, even where there is a number together, seems to be faithfully preserved by these birds. The same accurate observer has described the purple martin as being eight inches in length, and sixteen inches in extent, having the principal portions of his body of a The bill of this bird is rich and deep purplish blue. strong, the legs are short and stout, the tail consists of twelve feathers and is considerably forked, the eyes are full and dark. The flight of the purple martin has all the gracefulness and rapidity for which the swallow tribe is remarkable. At one time it is skimming along near the surface of the ground, in search of insects; at another, it is mounting aloft, and disporting among the clouds. When flying over a large lake or river, it has been observed to bathe and drink on the wing, with great expertness. When intending to drink, it sails close over the water, with both wings greatly raised, and forming a very acute angle with each other. In this position it lowers the head, and dips the bill several times in quick succession, swallowing at each time a little water. Audubon watched the arrival of these birds at the city of New Orleans, and ascertained that the rate of their flight during this migration did not exceed four miles an hour. When the flock encounters a violent storm of wind, they meet it courageously, and appear to slide along the edges of the gust, so as not to lose an inch of ground. The foremost front the storm with pertinacity, ascending or plunging along the skirts of the opposing currents, and entering their undulating recesses, as if determined to force their way through, while the rest follow close behind, all huddled together into such compact masses, as to appear like a black spot. Not a twitter is then to be heard from them by a spectator below, but the instant the farther edge of the current is doubled, they relax their efforts to refresh themselves, and twitter in united accord, as if congratulating each other on the successful issue of the contest. These courageous birds attack and drive away every species of hawk, crow, or vulture, and even chase away the cat that may be prowling about the roof in search of the young birds. In consequence of their attacks on birds of prey, and also on numerous insects, among which are even large beetles, the purple martin is a welcome visitant to the lands of the American farmer. It is on this account, doubtless, that such pains are taken for the accommodation of these birds; so that while the wealthier classes provide handsome boxes for their reception at the nesting time, the poor slave will also scoop out the middle of a gourd, and hang it up near his dwelling, to entice the approach of the bold and insect-loving martin. A nest thus prepared forms the subject of our illustration. HISTORY OF MR. READ, AND HIS INVENTION EARLY before breakfast, a gardener of the name of Read, in Sir Astley's instant conviction of the usefulness of this contrivance was remarkable, and formed a singular contrast with the ridicule with which it had been assailed by others. His curiosity, when once excited by any object, was never satisfied until he had made himself perfectly familiar with all the circumstances in detail. "Come," said lie, placing his hand on his humble friend's shoulder, a favourite action with him when pleased with any one, come up stairs, and have some breakfast; we must have some more talk about this." 66 Mr. Read was accordingly introduced to the ladies, and during the meal the conversation turned on the new invention, and Mr. Read's various occupations in the country. His active genius and acute perception were brought out by the pointed remarks and questions of Sir Astley, and the visit of the gardener was not soon forgotten. After breakfast Sir Astley took Mr. Read into a private room, and remained closeted with him for two hours. He made him relate his history, the circumstances which led to his invention, and then entered into a long conversation respecting the science of hydraulics, with which Mr. Read had made himself familiar. The great interest Sir Astley took in testing the value of this important professional instrument, the peculiar genius of its inventor, and the humble position in life from which he has honourably raised himself, make these circumstances worthy of being recorded. They will place him, in the history of science, in the list of those who, in spite of the depressing circumstances of deficient education and obscure rank, have emerged by their own exertions from their position, and forced themselves into notice. soon acquired a tolerable knowledge of anatomy. But he chiefly devoted his attention to the science of hydraulics; and although he found the technical expressions and des criptions for some time to be a bar to his progress, by dint of perseverance and earnest attention he overcame all difficulties, and after a few years obtained as perfect a knowledge of the science as the opportunities open to him allowed. While thus industriously engaged, his inventive genius displayed itself in an important improvement which he effected in the engine usually employed for watering the garden; and the alteration which he made has been in use ever since. Some few years afterwards, on the occasion of the death of one of Dr. Marriot's domestics, Mr. Read suggested to Dr. Wilmot, the physician in attendance, the application of the instrument he had invented for the relief of the disease which had destroyed his patient. Dr. Marriot saw its application, and suggested some improvements which Read constructed according to the Doctor's design. This apparatus was submitted to the inspection of the Council of the College of Surgeons, and highly appoved of. It then occurred to Read that it might be adapted to the purpose or removing poisonous fluids from the stomach; but the ridicule which this proposition brought upon him, checked for a time his ardour. In the year 1822, the death of the Bishop of Armagh, from taking laudanum by mistake, again directed Read's attention to the subject, and he determined to put his project to the test. The fame of Sir Astley Cooper, together with the cool reception his views had met from members of the profession in the country, induced him to show it to him as soon as it was finished. His judgment in taking this step did not mislead him. As soon as Sir Astley Cooper had heard these particulars, he determined at once to test the utility of the instrument by experiment; and in order to give publicity to the result, appointed Mr. Read to meet him at Guy's Hospital in the afternoon. No dog or other animal suited to his purpose could be obtained that day; but on the following, "the opportunity offered. Accordingly, in one of the theatres of the hospital, a dog was made to swallow a large quantity of opium; and so soon as the poison had produced its deleterious influence the instrument was used. It was found perfectly to fulfil its intention; and the animal recovered. Sir Astley then explained the mechanism of the apparatus to the class, and, shaking Mr. Read by the hand, said that his invention was of the greatest value, no less to the profession than to humanity at large; and observed that had he lived in ancient Greece he would undoubtedly have been crowned with laurel. Sir Astley spoke of the instrument in his surgical lectures in the following manner. "It enables us not merely to Mr. Read's history of himself was this: His father had remove the poison from the stomach, but to throw in water been a farmer in Kent, and he had been educated to follow in considerable quantities; and to introduce stimulating the same occupation; but the employment proved exceed-remedies after the opium is removed, for the purpose of ingly irksome to him. As a child, he had displayed the restoring the functions of the nervous system; and this greatest delight in mechanical contrivances; and while under circumstances where emetics cannot be even swalengaged in farming, always devoted his leisure hours to lowed. I certainly do expect the happiest results in such indulging his taste for this favourite pursuit, and, indeed, cases from the invention of this instrument. The man who turned it to a profitable account. He was a great reader, first suggested such an idea deserves well of his country, and and made himself well acquainted with history and general they who oppose it until the instrument has been fairly. science. At the age of twenty-two, he left his father's tried, must be destitute of understanding. Persons who farm, and became bailiff to a gentleman farmer in the parish object to a proposition merely because it is new, or who of Horsemunden in Kent. He remained with him three endeavour to detract from the merit of the man who proves years, and then determined to leave his native place, and the value of his invention by demonstrating its usefulness seek employment abroad. Dr. Marriot, the clergyman of and applicability, are foolish, unmanly, envious,and illiberal the parish, hearing of his intention, and being well aware objectors; they are unworthy of the designation either or of his talents and general good conduct, made him the offer professional.men, or of men of science." of placing under his superintendence the laying out and arranging of the gardens of an estate, which had lately devolved on him. This offer Mr. Read accepted; and one day, while pondering over the. means of distributing some water in a certain direction, Dr. Marriot sent him the part of a Cyclopædia which treated on "Hydrostatics." His interest was at once excited, and he determined thoroughly to peruse the article, and after immense labour and expenditure of time succeeded in making himself master of its contents. Mr. Read's perseverance and success in the management of gardens pleased Dr. Marriot so much, that he gave him access to his library whenever he thought proper, during leisure hours. Mr. Read availed himself of this permission, and often sat up the whole night engaged in study. Here he found a large volume of anatomical plates; and led on by the laudable curiosity to understand the construction of his own frame, he studied these with such diligence, that he The use of this instrument has long since justified the high expectations respecting it of Sir Astley Cooper.-Life of Sir Astley Cooper. THERE is in the consciousness of every man a deep impres- nd humble inquirer cherishes the impression, while he seeks EASY LESSONS ON REASONING. LESSON V. § 1 WE have seen that in every Proposition there is something that is spoken of; which is called the Subject; and something that you affirm or deny of it; which is called the Predicate. And it is evidently of great importance to understand and express clearly, in each Proposition, whether the Predicate is said of the whole of the Subject, or only of part of it:-in other words, whether it is predicated "universally," or "particularly." ["partially"] If, for instance, I say, or am understood to imply, that "all testimony is unworthy of credit," this is a very different assertion from saying or implying, merely that some testimony is unworthy of credit. The former of these is called a " Universal" Proposition; the Subject of it being taken universally, as standing for anything and everything that the Term is capable of being applied to in the same sense. And a Term so taken is said (in technical language) to be "distributed." The latter of the two is called a "Particular Proposition;" the Subject being taken particularly, as standing only for part of the things signified by it: and the Term is then said to be "undistributed." The technical word "distributed" (meaning what some writers express by the phrase "taken universally") is used, as you perceive, in a sense far removed from what it bears in ordinary language. But,-for that very reason, it is the less likely to lead to mistakes and confusion. And when once its technical sense is explained, it is easily remembered. When I say "birds come from eggs," and again "birds sing" I mean, in the former proposition, "all birds;" [or " every bird"] in the latter proposition I mean, not, "all" but "some" birds. In the former case the term "birds" is said to be "distributed;" in the latter, "undistributed." You must be careful also to keep in mind the technical sense (already explained) of the word "particular." In ordinary discourse, we often speak of "this particular person" or thing; meaning "this individual." But the technical sense is different. If I say "this city is large" the Proposition is not "Particular," but is equivalent to a Universal; since I am speaking of the whole of the Subject; which is, "this single city." But "some city is large" or, some cities are large" is a particular proposition; because the Subject, "city," is taken not universally, but partially. 66 be The distinction between a "Universal" proposition and a "Particular" is (as I have said) very important in Reasoning; because, as has been already remarked, altho' what is said of the whole of a Class may said of anything contained in that Class, the Rule does not apply when something is said merely of part of a Class. (see the example "X is Y" in § 3. of the preceding Lesson) § 2. You will have seen that in some of the foregoing examples, the words "all," "every," or "any," which are used to denote the distribution of a Subject, and again "some," which denotes its non-distribution, are not expressed. They are often understood, and left to be supplied in the reader's or hearer's mind. Thus, in the last example, "birds sing," evidently means 66 some birds;" and "man is mortal" would be understood to mean every man." 66 A Proposition thus expressed, is called "Indefinite;" it being left undetermined ["undefined"] by the form of expression, whether it is to be considered as Universal or as Particular. And mistakes as to this point will often give a plausible air to fallacies; such as that in the last Lesson (§ 4.) respecting "Testimony." But it is plain that every Proposition must in reality be either Universal or Particular; [that is, must have its Subject intended to be understood as distributed, or, as not distributed] tho' we may not be told which of the two is meant. 66 And this is called in technical language, the distinction of Propositions according to their "Quantity;" namely into Universal and Particular. "Every X is Y" and some X is Y," are propositions differing from each other in their "quantity," and in nothing else. § 3. But the Predicate of a proposition, you may observe, has no such sign as "all" or 66 some," affixed to it, which denote, when affixed to the Subject, the distribution or non-distribution of that term. And yet it is plain that each Term of a proposition,-whether Subject or Predicate-must always be meant to stand either for the whole, or for part, of what is signified by it;-in other words,-must really be either distributed or undistributed. But this depends, in the case of the Predicate, not on the "quantity" of the proposition, but on what is called its " Quality;" that is, its being Affirmative or Negative. And the invariable rule (which will be explained presently) is, that the Predicate of a Negative-proposition is distributed, and the Predicate of an Affirmative, undistributed. When I say "X is Y" the term "Y" is considered as standing for part of the things to which it is applicable; in other words, is undistributed. And it makes no difference as to this point whether I say "all X," or some X is Y." The Predicate is equally undistributed in both cases; the only thing denoted by the signs "all" or "some," being the distribution or non-distribution of the Subject. 66 If, on the other hand, I say "X is not Y." whether meaning that "No X is Y," or, that "some X is not Y," in either case, "Y" is distributed. § 4. The reason of this rule you will understand, by considering, that a Term which may with truth be affirmed of some other, may be such as would also apply equally well, and in the same sense, to something else besides that other. Thus, it is true that "all iron is a metal," altho' the term "metal" is equally applicable to gold, copper, &c., so that you could not say with truth that "all metal is iron," or that "iron, and that only, is a metal." For the term "iron" is of narrower extent than the term "metal" which is affirmed of it. So that, in the above proposition, what we have been comparing, are, the whole of the term "iron," and part of the term "metal;" which latter term, consequently, is undistributed. 66 And this explanation applies to every affirmative proposition. For tho' it may so happen that the Subject and the Predicate may be of equal extent [or equivalent," or, as some express it, "convertible"], so that the Predicate which is affirmed of that Subject could not have been affirmed of anything else, this is not implied in the expression of the proposition itself. In the assertions, for instance, that "every equilateral triangle is equiangular," and that "any two triangles which have all the sides of one equal to all the sides of the other, each to each, are of equal areas," it is not implied that "every equiangular triangle is equilateral," or that "any two triangles of equal areas have their respective sides equal." This latter indeed is not true: the one preceding it is true; that is, it is true that "every equiangular triangle is equilateral," as well as that "every equilateral triangle is equiangular:" but these are two distinct propositions, and are separately proved in treatises of Geometry. If it happen to be my object to assert that the Predicate as well as the Subject of a certain affirmative proposition is to be understood as distributed—and if I say, for instance "all equilateral triangles, and no others, are equiangular,"-I am asserting, in reality, not one proposition merely, but two. And this is the case whenever the proposition I state is understood (whether from the meaning of the words employed, or from the general drift of the discourse) to imply that the whole of the Predicate is meant to be affirmed of the Subject. Thus, if I say of one number-suppose 100-that it |