hc, by casting their calculi or flints upon two tables, one for those that acquitted, and the other for those that condemned: when the numbers were equal, an inferior officer added, in favor of the accused, the suffrage of Minerva, so called, because, according to an ancient tradition, this goddess being present in the court of areopagus at the trial of Orestes, gave her casting vote to turn the scale of justice. In some causes the sentence of this court was not final; but an appeal might be made to the courts to which they respectively belonged.

teem.

gineering, military or civil; while those of Gremillet, Queret, Longuêtre, and Juvigny, are better fitted for young persons, who intend to pursue commerce or practice the mechanical arts. Among the English treatises, that of Colburn is perhaps the most popular in this country. In German, those of Fischer and Basch deserve to be mentioned. Fischer's is, in many respects excellent.

The

ARK. A vessel to swim upon the water, usually applied to that in which Noah and his family This court preserved its authority uncorrupted were preserved from the universal deluge. The and entire till the time of Pericles, who, not having ark has afforded several points of curious inquiry borne the office of archon, could not be admitted among the critics and naturalists relative to its form, into it; and therefore employed all his art and in-capacity, materials, and other particulars. terest to undermine it. This at length he so effect- wood of which it was built is called in the Hebrew ually did, that his contempt of it served to lessen its gopher-wood, and in the Septuagint square timber. dignity and from that time the same excesses and Some translate the original cedar, others pine, othvices which were practised in the city gained ers box, &c. Pelletier prefers cedar on account ground among the areopagites themselves, until by of its durability, and the great plenty of it in Asia; degrees they lost all their former power and es- whence Herodotus and Theophrastus, relate that the kings of Egypt and Syria built whole fleets of When the apostle Paul was summoned to appear it, instead of deal. The learned Mr. Fuller, in his before the court of areopagus, under a charge of Miscellanies, has observed, that the wood whereof being "a setter forth of strange gods," and conse- the ark was built was nothing but the cypress-tree; quently of having violated the law that subsisted at for, taking away the termination, keepar and gophAthens, which made it capital to introduce or teach er differ very little in sound. This observation the any new gods, his conduct exhibited an admirable | great Bochart has confirmed, and shown very plainunion of wisdom and fortitude. In such a case an ly that no country abounds so much with this wood imposter would have retracted his doctrine to save as that part of Assyria which lies about Babylon. his life; and an enthusiast would have lost his life, In what place Noah built and finished his ark is no without trying to save it by innocent means. St. less a matter of disputation. But the most probaPaul did neither the one nor the other: he availed ble opinion is, that it was built in Chaldea, in the himself of an altar which he had found in the city, territories of Babylon, where there was so great a inscribed, "To the unknown God;" and pleaded quantity of cypress in the groves and gardens in that he did not propose to them the worship of any Alexander's time, that the prince built a whole fleet new god, but only explained to them one whom of it for want of other timber. And this conjecture their government had already received; "Whom is confirmed by the Chaldean tradition, which therefore ye ignorantly worship, him I declare un- makes Xisuthras (another name for Noah) set sail to you" by this he avoided the law, and escaped from that country. The time taken to build the being condemned by the areopagus, without de-ark is also much disputed, some making it fiftyparting in the least from the truth of the gospel, or violating the honor of God.

two years; others seventy-eight, one hundred, and one hundred and twenty. The Mahommedans say it was constructed in two years.

supposed to be lodged in it. Snellius computes the ark to have been above half an acre in area. Dr. Arbuthnot computes it to have been 81,062 tons.

ARITHMETIC. A branch of mathematics, the The dimensions of the ark, as given by Moses, object of which is, to combine numbers, according are 300 cubits in length, fifty in breadth and thirty to certain rules, in order to obtain results which in height; which some have thought too scanty, satisfy given conditions. These rules, methodical- considering the number of things it was to contain ; ly arranged, form a science, to which the name of and hence an argument has been drawn against the arithmetic is given. This science is very ancient, authority of the relation. To solve this difficulty and we find it (of course, in very different degrees Buteo and Kircher have proved geometrically that, of perfection) among all nations. Arithmetic, to taking the common cubit of a foot and a half, the the best of our knowledge, first attained a high de-ark was abundantly sufficient for all the animals gree of perfection, and was formed into a well connected whole among the Greeks from whom the Romans learned it. Still, the arithmetic of the ancients was, by no means, so convenient as the modern systems. The superiority of the modern systems is owing, in a great degree, to our system of notation, which deserves to be called one of the sublimest inventions of the human mind. A great number of works on arithmetic have been published. The French who excel all nations in popular treatises on mathematics, have the best school-books in the department of arithmetic. Those of Lacroix, Clairaut, Berout, and Maudit, are excellent for persons who wish to pursue mathematical studies to a considerable extent, or to devote themselves to en

It contained besides eight persons of Noah's family one pair of every species of unclean animals, and seven pair of every species of clean animals, with provisions for them all during the whole year. The former appears, at first view, almost infinite; but if we come to a calculation, the number of species of animals will be found much less than is generally imagined; out of which, in this case, are excepted such animals as can live in the water; and bishop Wilkins shows that only seventy-two of the quadruped kind needed a place in the ark.

By the description Moses gives of the ark, it ap

pears to have been divided into three stories, each | vulgar prejudices than now; so that had it been ten cubits or fifteen feet high; and it is agreed on a human invention, it would have been contrivas most probable, that the lowest story was for the ed according to those notions which form a conbeasts, the middle for the food, and the upper for fused and general view of things, as much too the birds with Noah and his family; each story be- big as it had been represented too little. Being subdivided into different apartments, stalls, &c., sides the places requisite for the beasts and birds though Josephus, Philo, and other commentators, and their provisions, there was sufficient room, add a kind of fourth story under all the rest; be- therefore, for Noah's household, utensils, instruing, as it were, the hold of the vessel, to contain ments of husbandry, and seeds to sow after the the ballast, and receive the filth and fæces of so deluge; for which purposes he might spare room many animals: but F. Calmet thinks that which is in the third story for thirty-six cabins, besides a here reckoned a story, was no more than what is kitchen, a hall, four chambers, and a space about called the keel of the ships, and served only for a forty-eight cubits in length to walk in. conservatory of fresh water. Drexelius makes 300 apartments; F. Fournier, 333; the anonymous author of the questions on Genesis, 400; Buteo, Temporarius, Arius Montanus, Hostus, Wilkins, Lamy, and others, suppose as many partitions as there were different sorts of animals. Pelletier makes only seventy-two, viz. thirty-six for the birds, and as many for the beasts.

As to the number of animals contained in the ark, Buteo computes that it could not be equal to 500 horses; he even reduces the whole to the dimensions of fifty-six pair of oxen. F. Lamy enlarges it to sixty-four pair of oxen, or 128 oxen; so that, supposing one ox equal to two horses, if the ark had room for 256 horses, there must have been room for all the animals. But the same author demonstrates that one floor of it would suffice for five-hundred horses, allowing nine square feet to a horse. As to the food in the second story, it is observed by Buteo, from Columella, that thirty or forty pounds of hay ordinarily suffices for an ox a day; and that a solid cubit of hay, as usually pressed down in our hayricks, weighs about forty pounds; so that a square cubit of hay is more than enough for one ox in one day. Now, it appears that the second story contained 150,000 solid cubits; which divided between 206 oxen will afford each more hay by two-thirds than he can eat in a year. Bishop Wilkins computes all the carnivorous animals equivalent, as to the bulk of their bodies and their food, to twenty-seven wolves; and all the rest to 280 beeves. For the former he allows 1825 sheep; and for the latter 109,500 cubits of hay; all which will be easily contained in the two first stories, and a deal of room to spare. As to the third story, nobody doubts of its being sufficient for the fowls with Noah, his sons and daughters.

ARKWRIGHT. Sir Richard Arkwright, an eminent manufacturer, advanced himself, by his mechanical inventions for carding and spinning cotton, from the humble station of a country barber to an immense fortune and an honorary title. For performing these operations of carding and spinning by means of machinery, it was required either that the usual manœuvre of the carders should be effected with square cards, or that cylinders, covered with a kind of metallic brush-work, should be made to revolve in contact with each other, either to card or to strip, according as the respective velocities, directions, and inclinations of their wires might be adjusted. With regard to spinning, it would be indispensably necessary, not only that the raw material should be very nicely prepared, but also that it should be regularly drawn out by certain parts representing the fingers and thumbs of the spinner. The contrivance for this purpose consisted of a certain number of pairs of cylinders, cachr pair revolving in contact with each other. Suppose then that a loose thread or slightly twisted carding of cotton were made to pass between one pair of cylinders, properly adapted with a facing for holding it, and that it proceeded from thence to another pair, whose surfaces revolved with a much greater velocity; it is evident, that this quicker revolution would draw out the cotton, and render it thinner and longer when it came to be delivered at the other side. This is the operation which the spinner performs with his finger and thumb; and if the cotton be delivered to a spinning apparatus, it will be converted into thread. Sir R. Arkwright contrived to make these rotatory carding and spinning enIgines to move by horse, by water, and by steam; and thus, by a saving of labor, and with the advantage of a patent monopoly, he was rendered one of the most opulent of English manufacturers.

Upon the whole, the learned bishop remarks, that of the two it appears much more difficult to assign a number and bulk of necessary things to answer the capacity of the ark than to find sufficient room for the several species of animals al- After he had quitted his original business, in ready known to have been there. This he attrib- the year 1767 he went to Warrington, where utes to the imperfection of our list of animals, he projected a mechanical contrivance for a kind especially of those of the unknown parts of the of perpetual motion. A clock-maker of that town, earth; adding, that the most expert mathemati- whose name was John Kay, dissuaded him from cian at this day could not assign the proportion it, and suggested that much money might be of a vessel better accommodated to the purpose gained by an engine for spinning cotton, which than is here done, and hence he concludes that the capacity of the ark, which had been made an objection against scripture, ought to be esteemed a confirmation of its divine authority; since in those ruder ages men, being less versed in arts and philosophy, were more obnoxious to

Kay promised to describe. Arkwright at first objected, but afterwards asked Kay, if this engine might be made at a small expense? Kay had been employed in making a cotton spinning engine; and in the trial for setting aside Arkwright's patent, it was proved that he had in

which he was capable. His ministers, admirals, and generals, were employed in the business; and measures were taken, not only in Spain, but in the ports of Sicily, Naples, and Portugal, for fitting out a most tremendous fleet. In Flanders also there were considerable military preparations; and an army of 14,000 men was assembled in the Netherlands, which was kept in readiness to embark, in flat-bottomed vessels constructed for the occasion. To the most renowned nobility, and princes of Italy and Spain, who were ambitious of being enrolled among the conquerors of England, were added many hundreds of English desperadoes, under the conduct of a man who had been banished for selling a Dutch fortress to Spain.

It was hoped that England would not understand till it was too late, that these efforts were directed against her peace and existence as a nation; but the queen was never without secret intelligence of whatever was carrying on in the different parts of the continent. The spies employed on this, and on every other occasion during her reign, were priests, it being a favorite maxim with her minister, Walsingham, that an active but vicious priest was the best spy in the world.

vented such an engine, but he had not brought it to perfection. Kay and Arkwright applied to Peter Atherton, Esq. of Liverpool, for assistance in the construction of such an engine, who, discouraged by the mean appearance of the latter, declined undertaking it; though he soon after agreed to lend Kay a smith and watch-tool maker to prepare the heavier part of the engine, whilst Kay himself undertook to make the clock-maker's part of it, and to instruct the workmen. In this way, Arkwright's first engine, for which he afterwards took out a patent, was made. Mr. Arkwright soon after connected himself in partnership with Mr. Smalley of Preston in Lancashire; but their property failing, they went to Notingham, and there, by the assistance of wealthy individuals, erected a considerable cotton mill turned by horses. A person of the name of Hayes had also employed himself in making cylindrical carding engines. Upon the whole, without minutely detailing further particulars, it appears that the cotton spinning was no new atteinpt when Mr. Arkwright embarked in it; but many difficulties occurred in bringing it to perfection. In the hands of Mr. Arkwright, the carding and spinning of cotton became a great national manufacture. According to his statement, it appears that the advancement of it, during a period of five years, cost him and those that were concerned with him 12,000l. before they derived from it any profit; and it must be allowed, that he alone seems to have had sufficient perseverance, activity, and skill, to perfect a scheme, in the prosecution of which many others had failed, and to render it valuable to himself and the public. The merits of Sir R. Arkwright may be summed up with observing, “that the object in which he was engaged is of the high-size, and of no great force. The seamen indeed est public value; that though his own family were enriched, the benefits which have accrued to his own nation have been incalculably greater; and that upon the whole, he is entitled to the respect and admiration of the world." He was knighted on the 22d of December, 1786, and died at his works at Crumford in Derbyshire, August 3d,

1792.

Elevated with the prospect of certain success, the Spaniards denominated their navy collected for this purpose, "The Invincible Armada." The forces of England seemed to be unequal to the contest, nevertheless Elizabeth scorned to fear; her mind was in every respect adequate to the greatness of the cause. At that period the number of sailors in this country amounted to 14,000, and the navy to only 28 sail, many of which were small in

were very superior to those of the enemy with whom they had to contend, which compensated in some measure for the inferiority of the size and force of their vessels. The attachment to their religion and liberties roused the exertions of the English: London supplied 30 ships and 10,000 men, and other places imitated the example. The nobility and gentry, among whom were several Roman Catholics of distinction, united to oppose this conARMADA. A Spanish term, signifying a fleet spiracy; they hired, armed, and manned upwards of men of war; it is more particularly applied to of 40 ships at their own private charge, and the the ships by which an attempt was made by Philip money which the queen demanded by way of loans, II. of Spain to invade England, in the reign of was cheerfully and readily granted. The comQueen Elizabeth, A. D. 1588. This expedition mand of the navy was entrusted to Lord Howard was excited as well by the injuries which the of Effingham; the principal fleet was stationed at king had sustained from the English arms, as Plymouth, and a smaller squadron of 40 vessels, with a view of transmitting his name to poster- commanded by Lord Seymour, lay off Dunkirk. ity, as the defender of the true faith. In the An army of 20,000 men was disposed in different preceding year, a whole fleet of transports was bodies along the coast, and a like number with 1000 destroyed at Cadiz by Drake, who ravaged the horse, under the command of the Earl of LeiSpanish coast. Cavendish, another sea comman-cester, was stationed at Tilbury, in order to defend der, committed about the same time, great depredations on the Spaniards in the South Sea, taking 19 vessels richly laden, with which he entered, in triumph, the river Thames. On these, and other accounts not less mortifying to the pride of Spain, Philip looked for speedy and ample revenge, by the overthrow of the power and credit of Elizabeth, who was every where regarded, as the protector and bulwark of the Protestant religion. These preparations were conducted with secrecy, but with all the vigor of

the capital. The main army of nearly 40,000 men, were placed under the command of Lord Huns don, ready to defend the queen's person, or to march wherever the enemy should appear. The King of Scotland avowed his adherence to Elizabeth, and his readiness to march his whole force, if necessary, to her aid. From Denmark and the Hanse-towns, she likewise received some help. The Protestants in general throughout Europe were anxious for the success of England. On the 29th of May, the Spanish fleet set sail from Lisbon,

but on the 30th it was dispersed by a violent storm. | When the animal places the head between the As soon however as it could be refitted, it made to- fore-feet, and brings the tail and posterior extremwards the English coast, consisting of 130 vessels.ities close together, a ball is formed, which ofThese preparations had been delayed a whole year, fers an uniform solid surface, not pervious to the by a circumstance mentioned by Bishop Burnet, attacks of birds of prey, nor small quadrupeds. and which is referred to in the "Acta Regia" as one The inferior surface of the body, not covered by of the most curious passages in the English history. the shell, is clothed with a coarse, scattered hair, "When it seemed," says the historian, "impossible some of which, also, appears at different points to divert the present execution of so great a design, between the plates or bands of the shell. All and there was no strength ready to resist it, a mer- the armadillos have a rather pointed snout, long chant of London effected it by this means. Being ears and stout claws; of the latter, some species very well acquainted with the revenue and expense have four on the anterior feet, others five; all, of Spain, and all that they could do, and knowing however have five on the posterior feet. They that their funds were so swallowed up, that it was have no incisive or canine teeth, but seven or impossible for them to victual and fit out their fleet, eight separate, cylindrical jaw-teeth which are but by their credit on the bank of Genoa, he under- only enamelled on the outside. They feed on took to write to all the places of trade, and to get vegetables, insects and carrion, have a simple such remittances made on that bank, that he might stomach, and no cœcum,—but for their peculiar have so much of the money in his own hands, that fecundity, the armadillos would be speedily exthere should be none current there equal to the terminated, as they are sought with great avidity great occasion of victualing the Spanish fleet. He in Guiana, Paraguay, Brazil, &c., on account of reckoned the keeping of such a treasure dead in their flesh, which is regarded as a great luxubis own hands till the season of victualing was over, ry. To obtain these animals, is not so easy as would be a loss of 40,000l. He managed the mat-might be supposed, since they burrow with aster with such secrecy and success, that the fleet tonishing rapidity, so that it is almost impossible could not be set out that year; at so small a price, to get at them by digging. The hunters are oband with so skilful a management, says the bishop, liged to smoke them out of their dens. When was the nation saved at that time." On the 19th they appear on the surface they are easily capof July the famous armada arrived in the Channel, tured, as they roll themselves into a ball, and redisposing itself in the form of a crescent, and main motionless, as soon as approached by a dog stretching to the distance of seven miles from the or man. If near a precipice, however, they someextremity of one division to that of the other. As it times elude pursuit by thus rolling themselves proceeded up the Channel, Effingham with the up and falling from the top, which they do withEnglish fleet, gave orders to avoid a close fight, but out receiving any obvious injury. The Indians to skirmish with the larger ships of the Spanish make use of the shell or covering of these anfleet, which it continued to do for six days. The imals, especially of the larger species, in the fabarmada, having reached Calais, cast anchor, and rication of baskets, &c.-Like all the animals bewaited the arrival of the Prince of Parma, who de-longing to this order, the armadillos are slowlayed leaving the Flemish ports, until he was assured that the Spaniards were masters of the sea. While the Spanish fleet lay confusedly in this position, the English Admiral by a successful stratagem despatched several of his smaller ships filled with combustibles into the midst of the enemy, and thus alarmed them to such a degree, that they immediately cut their cables and betook themselves to flight in the greatest disorder and precipitation. The English fleet pursued them and took several ARMENIANS. In Ecclesiastical History, a diships. A violent tempest then assailed the armada vision among the eastern Christians, thus called after it had passed the Orkneys, and most of the from Armenia, the country anciently inhabited by vessels that had escaped from the battle, were driv-them. Some have supposed, that Christianity was en on the western isles of Scotland, or on the coast established in Armenia by the apostle St. Bartholof Ireland, where they were miserably wrecked. omew; but this is certain, that in the beginning of the fourth century the Armenian Christians were ARMADILLO. A genus of mammiferous quad-in a flourishing state. The Armenian church, in rupeds, belonging to the order edentata, inhabiting the sixteenth century, was governed by three pathe hotter regions of the American continent. The triarchs, the chief of whom resided in a monastery species comprised within this genus are provided at Echmiazén, three leagues from Erivan. The with a very remarkable, hard shell, consisting of diocese of this patriarch comprehends Greater Arscales or plates, arranged somewhat like a tessellat menia; and he presides over forty-two archbish ed pavement or coat of mail, covering the head, ops; he is elected by bishops, and his election is body, and in some species the tail. This shell forms confirmed by the king of Persia. The revenues of a sort of shield on the head; a second, very con- this spiritual ruler are such as would enable him to vex, protects the shoulders, and a third is extended live in the most splendid and magnificent manner; over the rump; while the space intermediate to the and yet there is no mark of pomp or opulence in two last is occupied by a number of parallel his external appearance, or in his domestic econoplates, united by a strong flexible membrane, my. His table is frugal, and his habit plain; nor which allows of the necessary flexions of the body. is he distinguished from the monks with whom he

motioned and harmless; sometimes they are troublesome in gardens, both from the destruction of plants, and the number and extent of the excavations which they form. The species are distinguished from each other, principally, by the number of bands on the trunk of the body, be tween the shield on the fore shoulders and that on the rump.

lives, by any other circumstance besides his supe-only on the Saturday in the holy week, and meat rior power and authority. A second patriarch, sub- on Easter Sunday. Besides the great Lent, they ject to the first, and called "the Catholic," resides at Cis in Cilicia, and has twelve archbishops under him, who govern the churches established in Capadocia, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Syria. A third patriarch lives in the island of Aghtamar, in the midst of the great lake of Varaspuracan; he has no more than eight or nine bishops under his jurisdiction, and is regarded by the other Armenians as the en-tural history, a mineral substance, improperly called emy of their church.